The First Wings of War
Air Force Reserve in World War I
Paul H. Larson, Kevin I. Burge, Keith L. Barr
Front Cover Photo:
Sketch by SMSgt Darby G Perrin, 2015
1
THE FIRST WINGS OF WAR: AIR FORCE RESERVE IN
WORLD WAR I
Background
The First World War, referred to at the time as the Great War, erupted after Serbian
nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914.
A complex series of alliances between the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Great Britain, the German
Empire, France, Japan, and Russia virtually assured that Princip’s act in Sarajevo had far
reaching consequences.
1
These entangling alliances resulted in full-scale war on 4 August 1914
when German forces invaded Belgium, spurring Great Britain to declare war on Germany.
2
The United States of America officially remained neutral throughout much of the
conflict. Even as fighting on the Western Front bogged down into trench warfare, many in the
US desired to avoid entanglement in the war. German submarine attacks in the Atlantic,
particularly the sinking of the RMS Lusitania on 7 May 1915, strengthened calls for US
involvement.
3
However, few Americans wanted to join the carnage then underway overseas.
President Woodrow Wilson even won the presidential election of 1916 using the slogan “He
Kept Us Out of War.”
4
However, Germany’s attempt to enlist Mexico to attack the US proved to
be too much for many Americans and Congress. The US declared war on Germany on 6 April
1917. Within months, US military personnel began to arrive in France to assist the effort to
defeat the German Empire and its allies.
Introduction
On 18 July 1914, the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps replaced the Aeronautical
Division as the U.S. Army’s branch of military aviation after the United States Congress passed
Public Law 143, 38 Stat. 514. On that day, the Aviation Section had 19 officers and 101 enlisted
men. The start of World War I the following month spurred some in the US to take action. As a
result, in December 1914, the Aviation Section had grown to 44 officers, 224 enlisted men, and
23 aircraft. However, despite the frightening reality of a war in Europe, many in the US,
including many the US military, did not fully appreciate the gravity of the situation facing them.
As a result, the US military remained woefully underequipped and largely unprepared for war.
Granted, the Aviation Section doubled after the start of the conflict but even that jump in
numbers paled in comparison to the size of the air forces fielded by Germany, Great Britain,
France, Russia, and other powers fighting in Europe. Worse yet, the Aviation Section had no
reserve or National Guard officers or enlisted men who could quickly enter the fight.
5
Congress solved this problem with the National Defense Act of 1916, which created the
nation’s first air reserve program. The War Department knew it would be impossible to maintain
sufficient strength in aviators and skilled technicians in the peacetime Army. The Air Reserve
Program provided the needed hedge in case of war. The Officer’s Reserve Corps and the
Organized Reserve Corps added more than 2,200 officer and enlisted positions to the Signal
Corps’ Aviation Section. By the end of 1916, joining as a Reserve aviator proved to be popular,
but hiring and training moved slowly. Flying training schools were established in Florida,
2
Virginia, Illinois, and Tennessee. However, they were unable to keep up with the rapidly
expanding Aviation Section. In June 1916, the First Reserve Aero Squadron, which still exists
today as the 26th Space Aggressor Squadron, had 26 officer pilots and 12 Flying Sergeants
trained and volunteering for the punitive campaign against Pancho Villa in Mexico.
The effort to prepare the Aviation Section for World War I was fraught with difficulties.
However, a concerned group of men stood up to do what they could to prepare themselves and
their nation for war. When Congress declared war on Germany in April 1917, the total number
of military aviators was under 200. In November 1918, that number had jumped to 9,000. Some
of these first air Reservists, particularly Major Raynal Bolling who led the “Bolling Mission” to
Europe, played an instrumental part in procuring the aircraft and equipment US aviators used
during the war. Some, like Major Hiram Bingham, helped establish the training curriculum that
US aviators followed throughout the conflict. Others, such as Captain Phillip Carroll, played a
key role in building up the first US training bases in France. Finally, Reservists such as Captain
Douglas Campbell, Lieutenant Frank Luke, and Lieutenant Charles D’Olive earned the coveted
title of “ace” as a result of their daring exploits in the cockpits of some of the worlds most
advanced aircraft. The United States’ expeditionary Air Service succeeded in large part because
of the skill and ability of the 11,300 reserve officer pilots.
The Beginnings of Military Aviation in the United States
During the 19th and early 20th century, the predecessors of the United States Air Force
Airmen ascended in gas filled balloons. During the Civil War, the US Army operated a balloon
corps for observation purposes between June 1861 and June 1863. The balloons operated under
the jurisdiction of the Topographical Engineers for most of that time. The corps disbanded in
1863 because higher command within the US Army doubted its value. Thereafter, Aeronautics
in the Army remained dormant until 1892 when Congress appropriated the funds to develop a
balloon section in the Signal Corps. When the Spanish-American War began the Signal Corps
sent three officers, 24 enlisted personnel, and the necessary equipment to support one balloon to
Cuba. During the Battle of San Juan Hill, the balloon detachment spotted another route to the
front which relieved traffic on the main road and made a dual approach possible. In 1900, the
government provided the dollars to build a balloon house and the supporting buildings at Fort
Myer, Virginia. The Signal Corps organized a new balloon detachment at Fort Myer in May
1902.
6
The following year, in 17 December 1903, at a windy spot called Kill Devil Hill on the
Outer Banks of North Carolina, an event occurred that would change the course of the Twentieth
Century. Nevertheless, Wilbur and Orville Wright’s achievement of the first self-powered flight
in the history of the world went almost unnoticed at the time. Some who had heard of it still
doubted human flight was possible.
7
Yet, within a dozen years or so, top military brass fighting the Great War in Europe came
to consider one aviator to be worth a battalion of infantry. It was documented that thousands of
lives were saved by lone airmen sighting advancing armies where politicians said they weren’t
supposed to be. According to author Emil R. Salvini, “The sky was now the precious ‘high
ground’ generals had sought from the time man first went to war.”
8
3
The Signal Corps expressed increased interest in balloons, dirigibles, and the Wright
Brothers airplane during the summer of 1907.
9
On 1 August 1907, the Chief Signal Officer,
Brigadier General James Allen signed Office Memorandum No. 6 which established the
Aeronautical Division of his office. The memo stated: “This division will have charge of all
matters pertaining to military ballooning, air machines, and all kindred subjects.”
10
“Thus,” as
Major General Foulois wrote in his memoirs, “the United States Air Force was born.” Before the
end of 1907, the Aeronautical Division issued specification number 46 for a heavier-than-air
flying machine. One of the requirements was that the machine be easily and quickly assembled
and disassembled for “transportation on army wagons.”
11
On 9 September 1908, the Wright Brothers brought a 1908 Wright Flyer to Fort Myer,
Virginia, for flight trails. During the Wright’s time at Fort Meyer, Lieutenant Frank Lahm
became the first US military aviator to fly in a powered airplane when he accompanied Orville
on the second trial flight of the day, a flight which lasted for six minutes and 24 seconds. The
Wrights continued the trials at Fort Myer until 17 September 1908, when the Wright Flyer
crashed after the propeller splintered during the flight. Army Lieutenant Thomas E. Selfridge,
who accompanied Orville on the flight, died from the head trauma that he sustained during the
crash. Selfridge’s death resulted in all subsequent military aviators wearing leather “helmets”
similar to those used by football players of the period.
12
The accident at Fort Myer did not derail the US military’s newfound interest in aviation.
To their credit, the accident did not discourage the Wright Brothers either. In fact, the accident
persuaded Orville to push the Wright Flyer to the edge of its capabilities so that he could prove
to the US Army that their aircraft was safe and capable. In the weeks following the accident,
Orville broke several aviation records in his quest to redeem himself in the eyes of the US
Army.
13
On 30 July 1909, Orville Wright successfully completed the last of several tests of their
entry in the heavier-than-air contest. First Lieutenant Benjamin Foulois flew as passenger on
this flight. The US Army subsequently listed the aircraft, referred to as Aeroplane No. 1, in its
official inventory on 2 August 1909.
14
Evolution of the US Reserves
The development of military aviation was not the only difficulty facing the US Army
during the early 1900s. The challenge of expanding the relatively small numbers of peacetime
military defense forces at the outbreak of hostilities became a significant problem for the US
military. In the past, the US Army dealt with the situation by deploying a minimally trained and
equipped local militia supplemented by professionally trained regular armies during times of
emergency.
15
In actuality, essentially raw recruits damaged previously constituted regular and
militia regiments when thrust into their ranks. Many nations largely resolved the issue by the
second decade of the Twentieth Century by supplementing their standing armies with reserve
forces in excess of their traditional militias. For example Great Britain’s reserves numbered
215,000; France had 3 million; Germany 4.7 million; and Russia 5.4 million. As an emerging
world power, the US needed a well-trained reserve force of citizen-soldiers to meet its
obligations to protect its own shores and national interests around the world.
16
4
Until World War I, with the exception of the somewhat less-than-successful Union Civil
War draft law, the United States had fought all its wars by supplementing militia soldiers and
active-duty personnel with volunteers. With the onset of the Spanish-American War in 1898, the
volunteer system of 1861 repeated itself. Some of the volunteers displayed a similar lack of
discipline, equipment, and organization.
17
To address these shortcomings, Congress enacted a
series of measures between 1903 and 1916 that laid the foundation for citizen reserve
components as they exist today.
18
With the support of forward-looking thinkers like President Theodore Roosevelt, who
served as a volunteer during the Spanish-American War, and Secretary of War Elihu Root,
Congress passed The Dick Act of 1903.
19
The legislation, Public Law 57-33, sponsored by Ohio
Congressman and National Guard Major General Charles W. Dick, outlined the concept of a
universal militia as having two elements. The first element contained the National Guard—the
uniformed active militia of the several states and territories. Secondly, the act defined the
Reserve militia as all able bodied male citizens between 18 and 45. This law provided federal
military stores, arms, and equipment to the militias, provided they complete 24 drills and at least
a 5 day summer camp every year.
20
On 23 April 1908, Congress passed an act providing for, among other things, the
commissioning of medical school graduates into a Medical Reserve Corps.
21
Upon acceptance
into the Reserve, these new doctors became first lieutenants. According to Brigadier General
Hal C. Pattison, one time Army Chief of Military History, “The act of Congress on that date
which created the Medical Reserve Corps, for the first time in Army history, provided for the
establishment of a reservoir of trained officer personnel in a reserve status.” By the end of June
1909, 364 physicians had volunteered for the Medical Reserve Corps.
22
One of the staunchest believers in military preparedness and the role of the citizen-soldier
in national defense, Major General Leonard Wood, became the US Army Chief of Staff on 22
April 1910. By that time, General Wood already had a long and distinguished career. After
graduating from Harvard Medical School in 1884, Wood sought and obtained a rare appointment
to the US Army Medical Corps. Assigned to the American frontier in 1886, Wood participated
in the campaign against the Apache leader Geronimo for which he later received the
Congressional Medal of Honor. With his friend Theodore Roosevelt, Wood helped to organize,
and then commanded, the 1st US Volunteer Cavalry (the Rough Riders) at the start of the
Spanish-American War. After the war, the US Army appointed Wood military governor in Cuba
and later the Philippines. During this period, he was controversially promoted from captain to
Brigadier on 4 February 1901. Two and a half years he was promoted to Major General.
23
Having served as a leader of both regular US Army and volunteer troops, Wood became
interested in preparing the citizen soldier to blend in with the active forces. As early as 1902,
General Wood attended military maneuvers in Germany.
24
By 1911, Wood had made three trips
to Europe where he observed the great European powers training their armies for war. He
concluded that war was inevitable and that there was a need for greater preparedness in the
United States military.
25
5
As Lieutenant Colonel Robert Sperberg wrote, General Wood “meant to breathe life into
a citizen reserve.” A logical place to begin to train an army capable of fighting a major modern
war seemed to be with the National Guard. But when Attorney General George W. Wickersham
decided in 1912 that militia service outside the US was unconstitutional, Wood was forced to
find a reserve elsewhere, something he already wanted to do.
26
The Army Appropriations Act of 24 August 1912 created the first federal military reserve
outside of the Medical Department.
27
Under the new program, an enlisted man could elect to
transfer to the Reserve after three years of active duty. Unfortunately, no provision was made for
paying these volunteers except in times of war. Therefore, it is not surprising that after two years
only sixteen enlisted soldiers had joined the Reserve.
28
Meanwhile, the US Navy developed a program featuring two-month training cruises on
battleships for college students. The students incurred no enlistment obligation, but became
familiarized with life at sea. Lieutenant Henry T. Bull, a professor of military history at Cornell
University, suggested a similar program for the army to promote an expanded Reserve force.
General Wood supported Bull’s proposal.
29
Volunteers with no obligation to enlist would be
assigned to regular army units for summer camps of several weeks duration. The object of the
camps, as Wood wrote to the country’s college and university presidents, was to increase the
number of trained Reservists “by a class of men from whom, in time of a national emergency, a
large proportion of the commissioned officers will probably be drawn…”
30
The first two of these summer camps took place in the summer of 1913 at Gettysburg,
Pennsylvania, and Monterrey, California. The camp at Gettysburg made use of the tents and
equipment already set up there for veterans attending the fiftieth anniversary of the Civil War
battle. The active-duty US Army conducted training, cooking, and maintenance at both camps.
Students experienced four weeks of infantry, cavalry, artillery, corps of engineers, and signal
corps training that culminated in a battery of tests. They concluded training with a weeklong
continuous military maneuver hiking sometimes fifteen miles a day, skirmishing with blank
rounds, learning camp sanitation, and how to read a topographic map. The men typically
returned to camp tired and sore. Gettysburg camp commander Major James H. McRae stated in
his report on the 1913 camp, “They worked hard, were quick and eager to learn, and maintained
their interest and enthusiasm to the end.”
31
In his annual report, General Wood argued that “In view of the great success of these
camps, the War Department has decided to repeat them during the ensuing year.”
32
Of the 159
trainees who attended the camps in 1913, 84 received reserve commissions and served in the
First World War.
33
Interest in the camps grew over the next few years so that by the summer of
1915 the number of students attending had grown to some one thousand men.
34
On 22 April 1914, Major General Wood relinquished the office of chief of staff and
within three months became commander of the Eastern Department of the US Army
headquartered on Governor’s Island, New York. From this position the general was able to
continue to direct the students’ instruction camps and influence public opinion.
35
Two years
later, with Woods cooperation, members of the Aero Club of America set up a civilian flying
school on Governor’s Island.
36
6
Despite the success of the summer camps, the view from the active-duty US Army in the
field was less sanguine. There was a real possibility of invasion from Mexico at that time. The
US Army’s 8th Brigade remained stationed in El Paso on border patrol in 1914. Its commander,
Brigadier General John J. Pershing, addressed his concerns regarding preparedness at the time to
Wood: “Here we sit with all our troops on a peace footing waiting for actual hostilities to begin,
when we will rush thousands of green and untrained recruits into the ranks of the regular
army.”
37
On 18 July 1914, as tensions increased throughout Europe following Gavrilo Princip’s
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914, the Aeronautics
Division, US Signal Corps, officially became the Aviation Section, US Signal Corps, after
President Woodrow Wilson signed Public Law 143. The law stated:
There is hereby created, an aviation section, which shall be a part of the Signal
Corps of the Army, and which shall be, and is hereby, charged with the duty of
operating or supervising the operation of all military aircraft, including balloons
and aeroplanes, all appliances pertaining to said craft, and signaling apparatus of
any kind when installed on said craft; also with the duty of training officers and
enlisted men in matters pertaining to military aviation.”
38
At the time of its creation, the Aviation Section contained just 19 officers, 101 enlisted men, and
seven aircraft.
On 5 August 1914, within a month after Wilson signed Public Law 143, Lieutenant
Colonel Samuel Reber, issued Signal Corps Aviation School General Order number 10, which
outlined the Aviation Section’s basic organization. The re-organized Aviation Section
contained the Signal Corps Aviation School, commanded by Captain Arthur S. Cowan; the 1st
Aero Squadron, commanded by Captain Benjamin D. Foulois; the 1st Company, 1st Aero
Squadron, commanded by Captain Harold C. Geiger; and the 2nd Company, 1st Aero Squadron,
commanded by Captain Lewis E. Goodier. Several months later, in December 1914, the
Aviation Section swelled to 44 officers, 224 enlisted men, and 23 aircraft.
39
The support that the Aviation Section received did not necessarily indicate a dramatic
shift in thinking on the part of the US government or the American people. Some areas of
American public opinion were indifferent or even hostile to the idea of military preparedness or a
military build-up. However, many attitudes and opinions changed on 7 May 1915 when a
German U-boat sank the Cunard ocean liner Lusitania. Casualties aboard the Lusitania included
1,195 of the 1,969 passengers and crew aboard. Of this number, 94 were children. Also among
the dead were 124 Americans.
40
Within three days of the sinking of the Lusitania, fellow New York City law partners
Grenville Clark and Elihu Root, Jr. (son Elihu Root, Sr., former US Secretary of War), with the
support of Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. and twelve others, met to begin planning what turned into the
so-called business men’s camps held at Plattsburg, New York. The idea was Clark’s. What he
had in mind was a military training camp for lawyers and businessmen in their late twenties and
thirties along the same lines as those camps held previously for college students. Major General
7
Wood encouraged the group. He also arranged for the adult camp to be held from 8 August 1915
to 6 September 1915. The War Department included the businessmen’s camp in the official
order authorizing the other camps held that summer.
41
The 1,200 men assembled at Plattsburg
proved to be just as enthusiastic as the students.
42
One element participating in the 1915 Plattsburg camp was a new motorized machine gun
company from the New York National Guard commanded by Captain Raynal C. Bolling.
Bolling was a Harvard Law School graduate and General Solicitor of the United States Steel
Corporation.
43
Many of the 70 officers and men in his company were “businessmen” as the
camp planners had imagined. Boiling obtained 15 vehicles for the expedition including trucks
and an armored Cadillac car. The Army, Navy, and National Guard supplied the machine guns
and General Wood supplied a gunnery and tactics expert.
44
In the horse powered Army of that day “Bolling’s idea bristled with novelties…”
45
If the
guns and vehicles were not “novelties” enough, Bolling had arranged for an airplane with
professional aviator in case anyone wanted to learn to fly. The motorized convoy made history
as it rolled out of the armory in New York on its way to Plattsburg.
46
Nevertheless, no one could
imagine then that they were taking the first steps toward what eventually became the Air Force
Reserve.
Just over six months after the end of the first Plattsburg camp, tensions finally erupted on
the border with Mexico. On 19 March 1916, Mexican leader Francisco “Pancho” Villa invaded
US soil when he attacked the town of Columbus, New Mexico.
47
Villa’s strike resulted in the
death of nine civilians and eight members of the army’s 13th Cavalry Regiment then stationed in
Columbus. The Secretary of War ordered Brigadier General Pershing to command an expedition
into Mexico to capture “Villa and his bandits.” Pershing’s boss, Major General Frederick N.
Funston, commander of the Army’s Southern Department added: “You are instructed to make all
practicable use of the aeroplanes at San Antonio, Texas, for observation.”
48
The “aeroplanes at San Antonio” referred to the 1st Aero Squadron stationed at Fort Sam
Houston, Texas. Captain Benjamin D. Foulois commanded the 1st Aero Squadron [not to be
confused with the 1st Reserve Aero Squadron discussed below]. Foulois was a thirty-six year
old former enlisted man in the Aviation Section of the signal Corps with 17 years military
service and more flying time than any other military pilot. His unit, consisting of fifteen other
pilots and eight airplanes, comprised the entire active air arm of the US military establishment.
Captain Foulois received orders directing his squadron “to proceed by rail to Columbus, New
Mexico,” just three days after the raid.
49
8
1
st
Aero Squadron in Mexico (Photo: AFHRA)
The National Defense Act of 1916
Two months after the Villa attack, Congress passed the National Defense Act (NDA) of
1916 in response, at least in part, to the war raging in Europe. President Woodrow Wilson
signed the NDA into law on 3 June 1916. The comprehensive legislation defined the roles and
missions of the active-duty US Army, the National Guard, and the Reserves. It also placed the
Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) and the Plattsburg idea of summer training on a firm
basis.
50
The 1916 Defense Act may have never happened without the Mexican troubles.
51
In the
words of erstwhile Chief of Military History, Brigadier General Hal C. Pattison, “the National
Defense Act of 1916 is viewed as providing for the immediate ancestor of our reserve system in
its present form.”
52
In July 1916, President Woodrow Wilson authorized a total of 296 officers for the
Aviation Section, Signal Officers Reserve Corps and 2,000 enlisted men for the Signal Enlisted
Reserve Corps.
53
Civilians who met the basic requirements enlisted as sergeants in Aviation
Section, Signal Enlisted Reserve Corps, and were assigned to active-duty so that they could
complete their training and earn a commission. To facilitate that process, Wilson also authorized
the Aviation Section to use civilian flying schools for preliminary flight training, since the
military had very few aviation schools. On 14 November 1916, the first group of Signal Enlisted
Reserve Corps members arrived at the Curtiss School in Newport News, Virginia, to begin flight
training.
54
9
The 1st Reserve Aero Squadron
55
The 1915 Plattsburg camp had a profound effect on Captain Raynal C. Bolling, the
commander of the motorized machine gun company from the New York National Guard. While
the “lure of machine guns” was indeed novel, it was the airplane that satisfied a personal goal to
be prepared for military service and his “passion for adventure.”
56
But where the large issue was so serious and where those who saw it were so few,
mere personal effort in preparation could not content Bolling. Having had a
glimpse of the wonderful possibilities of military aviation and realizing how little
had been done by our government, he began to make plans for the training of
pilots to be available in time of war. The Plattsburg venture had encouraged him
to believe that he could lead as well as learn; he had never been afraid of
assuming responsibility; and accordingly without delay he took steps toward the
formation of an Aero Company of the New York National Guard. It was a virgin
field, and Bolling, a novice, had to start from the beginning. He must gain
support for his project in several quarters, he must recruit prospective fliers, he
must raise a considerable amount of money, he must establish contact with the
National Guard authorities.
57
1
st
Reserve Aero Squadron (Photo: NMUSAF)
On 25 April 1916, Captain Bolling presented a report after the 1st Aero Company of the
New York National Guard had completed its initial six months of training. The period covered
was 1 November 1915 to 25 April 1916. During that time the unit raised monies from private
contributions to purchase five aircraft. The company’s physical location was Hampstead Field,
Mineola, New York where they built five hangers to house the aircraft. The pilots accomplished
355 flights totaling 3,859 minutes amounting to 3,800 miles.
58
10
Captain Raynal C. Bolling (Photo: NMUSAF)
Less than three months later, President Wilson mobilized the National Guard due to
Poncho Villa’s raid on Columbus, New Mexico. On 23 June 1916, Bolling went to Mineola to
commence training his civilian pilots in the 1st Aero Company.
59
Recruiting grew the unit by
fifty per cent from 30 to 45 members. What emerged that summer was the first army flight
school for citizen airmen in history.
60
At the same time on Governor’s Island in New York
Harbor another group of civilians participated in aviation training. The Governor’s Island
Training Corps was organized by Philip A. Carroll, who was one of the original fifteen
professionals advocating the businessmen’s camps at Plattsburg. Although the Governor’s
Island school did not have official status, Wood provided regular army flying instructors.
61
After complimenting Carroll and Bolling in a letter for their valuable work during that
summer of 1916, General Wood wrote that it was unfortunate that aviation was attached to the
Signal Corps. “It must eventually be an independent corps,” Wood predicted. Over thirty years
later this prediction came true with the regular and reserve aviation forces in the US Air Force.
62
Despite some progress made during the summer of 1916, Captain Bolling was less than
satisfied with the support the 1st Aero Company received from the state of New York. Bolling
recalled that “We had no tents, no uniforms, no blankets, nor other equipment,” Bolling stated in
a preparedness promotion speech at a dinner in New York City that November. “We had to use
11
Raynal Bolling
Born in Hot Springs, Arkansas, on 1 September 1877, Raynal C. Bolling attended Harvard College
and graduated with the class of 1900. Continuing in Harvard Law School, Bolling was active in
the Harvard debating club, was an enthusiastic oarsman on the Harvard rowing crew, and an avid
runner. Following a short tenure in a New York law firm, the United States Steel Corporation
hired Bolling as assistant to its General Solicitor in 1903 and General Solicitor in 1913.
In 1915, Bolling organized and commanded the Motor Machine Gun Company that attended the
military training camp at Plattsburg that year. He and other members of his National Guard unit
formed the 1st Aero Company, New York National Guard. Then Bolling was appointed to
command the new 1st Reserve Aero Squadron, Aviation Section, Signal Corps, on 26 May 1917.
Ordered to Washington, D.C., in late May 1917, then Major Bolling worked on the details of a draft
Aviation bill with Major Benjamin Foulois that resulted in an unprecedented appropriation of
$640,000,000 for the US Air Service. The next month, Bolling headed a mission “to England,
France and Italy to arrange a joint program for the construction of airplanes and engines and all
other industrial aspects of the aeronautical situation.”
Members of “the Bolling Mission” landed in England on 17 June 1917. They also traveled to
France and Italy. Bolling’s recommendations in his report of the results of his mission were that
French manufacturers would supply the needs of the A.E.F. for aircraft at least for the first twelve
months.
In November 1917, Colonel Bolling met with General Pershing. During this meeting, Pershing
appointed Bolling as the American representative on the committee that dealt with allied
aeronautical equipment. The following spring, Bolling became the Chief of the Air Service for the
US II Corps. Bolling visited British Royal Flying Corps aerodromes to prepare for his new
assignment. On the return trip, Bolling and his driver, Private Paul Holder, found themselves in the
midst of German troops. While trying to protect both himself and Holder, Bolling was shot dead by
German soldiers.
12
private funds to pay for our rations,” he went on to say. “However, we made the best of it.”
63
Bolling’s conclusion after this experience was that “National Guard aviation units are not and
never will be practicable.”
64
The company never made it to Mexico. Nevertheless, the Army began to pay its bills in
August 1916. Three months later, on 2 November 1916, the unit was mustered out of federal
service.
65
By this point, Bolling meant to dissolve the aero company. This was achieved the
following spring “after much consultation and correspondence.”
66
In the meantime the National
Defense Act of 1916 had established the Signal Corps Reserve with the mandate to recruit and
train members of the Aviation Section, Signal Officers and Enlisted Reserve Corps. The act
provided the main ingredient lacking in previous legislation—funding. Nearly a million dollars
was available for training the Reserve Corps when called to active duty for training.
67
Congress declared war on Germany in April 1917. Later that month, the magazine of the
Aero Club of America published the following:
On April 27, the War Department issued the following order: “The following
officers of the Aviation Section, S.O.R.C. [Signal Officer Reserve Corps] to
active duty at Governors Island, N.Y., for duty in connection with the
organization of the 1st Reserve Aero Squadron, Signal Corps; Major Raynal C.
Bolling, Capt. Phillip A. Carroll, Capt. James E. Miller, 1st Lieutenant Daniel R.
Noyes, 1st Lieutenant Frederick L. Blakeman, 1st Lieutenant Charles Reed, 1st
Lieutenant Hobart A.H. Baker, and 1st Lieutenant Edwin E. Post Jr.”
68
During the waning days of April 1917 the nation’s most experienced active duty aviator
Benjamin Foulois and its most knowledgeable reserve aviator Raynal Bolling worked on the
draft bill for organizing military aviation to fight the war. This resulted in an act appropriating
640,000,000 for training, production, and maintenance.
69
The 1st Aero Company of the New York National Guard inactivated on 23 May 1917.
70
Most of the former members of the former 1st Aero Company joined the 1st Reserve Aero
Squadron, Aviation Section, US Signal Corps. The unit activated on 26 May 1917 under the
command of Major Bolling.
71
Many of the men from the Governor’s Island group under Captain
Philip A. Carroll also joined the squadron.
72
Creating the Signal Enlisted and Officer Reserve Corps, Aviation Section,
Signal Corps
The activation of the 1
st
Reserve Aero Squadron occurred as the Aviation Section
struggled to expand. When the US declared war with Germany in April 1917, Chief Signal
Officer, Major General George O. Squier had to work tirelessly to expand the meager Aviation
Section under his command. In order to help him achieve his objective, Squier sought out
individuals who had the requisite skills to build a successful force. One such man was
Connecticut National Guard Captain Hiram Bingham.
13
Bingham, a Yale professor, archaeologist, and adventurer of some renown, also had an
intense interest in aviation. Having successfully completed the Curtiss flight school in Miami,
Florida, the Aero Club of America qualified Bingham as an aviator on 30 April 1917. On 1 May
1917, Bingham received a telegram from General Squier asking him to report to headquarters
Aviation Section, Signal Corps, Washington D.C. to assist in selecting and training aviators. As
Bingham wrote later, “Needless to say, I took the next train.” Upon arrival General Squier
explained that he had selected Captain Bingham because of his experience in the military, his
exploration skills, his familiarity with flying, and his ability to teach. Squier then assigned
Bingham to a task force of the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics that traveled to the
Royal Flying Corps ground school at Toronto, Canada, to observe how would-be military
aviators might be trained in the US.
73
Bingham lead the group made up of representatives from the Universities of California,
Texas, Illinois, Ohio State, Cornell, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to the
University of Toronto, School of Military Aeronautics. The Royal Flying Corps in Canada
conducted training at Camp Bordon, some seventy-five miles outside Toronto. Camp Bordon
was at that time the largest flying field not in Europe. Major Oliver D. Filley, the camp
commander, was an American who had joined the British forces early in the war and was a
veteran aviator of the western front. In Major Filley’s philosophy, “the pilot is more like the
knight of old, or the modern cavalry officer; he must first of all be (to quote the hackneyed
phrase) an officer and a gentleman.” What’s more, the Major believed polo players and football
quarter backs made excellent pilots.”
74
Bingham and the other Americans on the committee formed the opinion that pilot
candidates must have the “right stuff” to be considered for training. Trainees must be “fellows
of quick, clear intelligence, mentally acute and physically fit.” The Signal Corps, Aviation
Section should eliminate the unfit as fast as possible to avoid wasting on them “the most
expensive education in the world.” The idea was to eliminate undesirables at the relatively
inexpensive ground school stage before they moved on to actual flight training.
The American committee decided it could not do better than adopt the Royal Flying
Corps curriculum they had observed in Canada for the American program of instruction. The
tour of inspection ended 11 May 1917. The six entities represented on the Toronto trip began
ground school training ten days later on 21 May 1917.
75
By June 1917, the US Schools of
Military Aeronautics added two more ground schools at Princeton University and the Georgia
School of Technology.
76
Bingham returned to Washington on 13 May 1917, and became the Director of the US
Schools of Military Aeronautics. By then, the city had become much more “warlike” compared
to when he left. About six months later someone on the General Staff authorized the wearing of
wings on uniforms of officers in the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps. Nevertheless, they
were still required to wear cavalry spurs when wearing boots. “It is a queer sense of humor that
requires a field officer,” wrote Bingham, “who in the course of his duties suddenly is called upon
to mount his winged steed, to divest himself of his spurs and put them in his pocket for safety.”
At some point, this archaic uniform regulation was suspended for aviators actively engaged in
14
Hiram Bingham
Bingham (1875 – 1956) was a professor at Yale University, explorer, archaeologist, aviator, and US
Senator from Connecticut. On an expedition to Peru in 1911, with a local farmer for a guide, Bingham
was the first to make public to the outside world the existence of the ruins of Machu Picchu, the pre-
Columbian Inca site.
His autobiographical post WWI book, An Explorer in the Air Service, is a record of the two years after
he learned to pilot a flying boat in 1917 at the Curtiss Aviation school in Miami where Glenn Curtiss
himself told Bingham, “…anyone who could ride horseback and sail a boat could learn to fly.”
Bingham passed the final test for his Aero Club aviator pilot license on 30 April 1917, less than a
month after the US declared war on Germany. Having previously served as a captain in the
Connecticut National Guard, he applied for and received a commission in the Aviation Section of the
US Signal Officer Reserve Corps.
In May 1917, Bingham reported to Washignton, D.C. to join a task force of the National Advisory
Committee on Aeronautics that helped determine the best way to train U.S. military aviators. The
Nation Advisory Committee decided to adopt the British Royal Flying Corps model. Once finished
with his duties on the committee, Bingham served with the Chief of the Air Service from April-August
1918. For the remainder of the conflict, from August to December 1918, Bingham, now a lieutenant
colonel, served as the commander of the Third Aviation Instruction Center, Issoudun, France.
15
war. Even so, when Bingham returned from the war in 1919, he was shocked to find “the
unfortunate aviator once more compelled to wear spurs when wearing boots.”
77
The Bolling Mission
Major Bolling impressed many people with whom he came in contact. Thus, Secretary of
War Newton Baker selected Bolling to head a team of experts that investigated and
recommended what airplanes and equipment the US government should produce. The group
included Bolling, Captain V.E. Clarke, Captain E.S. Gorrell, Commander W.G. Westervelt and
Lieutenant W.G. Childs of the US Navy, Mr. Howard Marmon of the Nordyke and Marmon
Company, Mr. Herbert Hughes of the Packard Motor Company, Mr. C.H. Heilman of the
Northway Motor Company, Mr. W.B. Hurley of the Midvale Steeel Company, Mr. R.A. Vail of
the Dodge Motor Company, and Mr. Stay of the Aluminum Castings Company.
78
Known
thereafter as the “Bolling Mission,” the group prepared for travel to Europe in mid-June 1917.
On 14 Jun 1914, Bolling received a letter from Howard Coffin, chairman of the Aircraft
Production Board. Coffin explained that Bolling occupied “a position of vital importance not
only to this country but to the countries on the other side of the water as well.” Coffin continued,
stating:
The speed with which the United States launches its aircraft program depends largely on
you. Your good judgement and tact may easily bring results of the greatest international
importance. I just wish to say to you that I am standing behind you in the unqualified
statement that you are man best fitted for this vitally important task we have assigned
you, and I know that we shall not be disappointed in the results.
This whole aircraft program is rapidly assuming such proportions that I believe
you have the opportunity of your life, and you have my heartfelt wishes for your success
upon personal as well as business grounds. Keep me advised of every step by cable. Get
all the facts before recommending a decision….
79
Commonly referred to as the Bolling Mission, the group set sail for Europe on 17 June
1917. Shortly after arriving in England on 27 June 1917, Boiling, Mr. Howard Marmon, and
Major E.S. Gorrell met with British authorities to discuss the issue of royalties. The British
agreed to “an even exchange of manufacturing rights” as long as the US provided the raw
materials.
80
The Bolling Mission departed for France on 30 June 1917. After landing at the Royal
Flying Corps’ headquarters in France, Bolling headed to Paris where he tried to meet with high-
level French officials. Bolling recalled that it took a few days “before we were put in touch with
anyone who seemed to be in a position to take up anything promptly and vigorously. There were
endless conferences which came to nothing, and one complication overlapped another.”
81
Frustrated, Bolling decided that his group would have to travel to Italy in order to get the full
picture of Italian aviation. Thus, Bolling and his group left for Italy at the earliest opportunity.
After arriving in Italy, Bolling and his men visited aircraft factories, aviation training
bases, and the Italian front lines. The Italians went out of their way to impress Bolling and
16
company. At Turin, the Italians held an air show that involved approximately 30 aircraft of all
types being put through all sorts of aerial maneuvers. The visit proved to Bolling and his men
that the Italians had the capabilities to produce the aircraft, engines, and associated equipment
that the US needed on the Western Front in France.
82
After arriving back in Paris following the completion of their visit to Italy, the men on the
Bolling Mission went their separate ways after General Pershing informed Bolling that he
needed him to help get the Air Service, AEF, up and running. Before Bolling dove headlong into
his duties with the Air Service, AEF, he sent his Bolling Mission reports to the US. In a letter
received by General Foulois on 15 August 1917, Bolling stated:
In our opinion these American needs may be divided into two periods: First
period, from the present time to July 1, 1918. Second period, subsequent to July
1, 1918, With every confidence in the ultimate performance of the American
production program our investigations of production experience over here and of
the sea tonnage situation have convinced us that airplanes and engines produced
in America cannot be actually delivered at the front in any great quantity prior to
July 1, 1918. Subsequent to July 1, 1918, we believe that American production
will not only take care of our needs, but may become a larger factor in
maintaining the air forces of our Allies. In considering the period between now
and July 1, 1918, due weight must be given to the experience of all foreign
countries and manufacturers in the delays in airplane and engine production
which were not and could not be foreseen….
After long and careful consideration of this subject, we and all others here have
come to the very strong conviction that most of the airplanes and engines for
American use at the front and for our training here between now and July 1, 1918,
must be produced either in France or Italy were effective and successful methods
of production are already in full operation. Because we consider this imperative
and absolutely essential to prevent failure of our air campaign next year, an
arrangement has been made with the French Government under which they are to
produce for us the airplanes and engines....
83
Not long after Bolling sent his message, General Pershing signed a formal contract with
the French on August 30, 1917. The contract required the French to build 5,000 aircraft and
8,500 aircraft engines for the US to use during the war.
Bolling in the Air Service, AEF
After the Bolling Commission finished its work, Bolling joined Billy Mitchell’s staff in
Paris, France. Mitchell, recently selected as the Chief, Zone of the Interior, Air Service, needed
all the capable officers he could get. Then, on September 3, 1917, General Pershing established
the Air Service, AEF. Pershing personally selected Bolling to serve as the Director of Air
Service Supply for the Air Service, AEF. In his new position, Bolling oversaw the lines of
communication for the entire Air Service Zone on the Western Front. As such, Bolling oversaw
the Balloon Division, the many training schools, air depots, and the aerial photography units.
84
17
On November 17, 1917, Brigadier General Benjamin Foulois arrived in Paris with a staff
of over 100 officers. Shortly after arriving, Foulois relieved Bolling and assigned him as the
chairman of the Joint Army-Navy Aircraft Committee so that he could serve as the intermediary
between the U.S. military and the American companies producing aircraft and aircraft parts.
Ostensibly this was done to coordinate the activities of the military and the aviation industry in
procuring aircraft. During the same period, Bolling served as General Pershing's aviation
representative on the Supreme War Council.
The assignment proved frustrating as his staff work and proposals were often
undermined by competing interests, political in-fighting, and administrative delays. Bolling
sought a combat command and was picked to become chief of air service for the US II Corps
when it formed in the spring. To prepare himself he visited aerodromes of the Royal Flying
Corps in the vicinity of Amiens in March 1918 to observe air operations in support of the British
Expeditionary Force during the German spring offensive.
Training
Training new aviators, mechanics, and other personnel proved to be a significant
challenge for the Aviaiton Section, especially the Air Service, AEF. Bolling, perhaps better than
most because of his time both the New York National Guard and the Signal Officers Reserve
Corps, understood the difficulties involved in training aviators quickly. He commented:
The great development of military aviation abroad and the remarkable
achievements of foreign military aviators with the machines now turned out there
have led people in this country to think that military aviators can be trained and
military machines perfected quickly. They nothing of the time, energy, and
money expended in the results abroad under the stress of utmost necessity.
85
Bolling proved to be accurate. When the US declared war on Germany, the US Air Service only
had 65 trained flying officers.
86
A few of those men had seen active service during the Punitive
Expedition in Mexico but most had no wartime experience.
Bolling became so frustrated by the immense difficulties that seemed to emerge at every
turn with regard to training that he lamented:
I had one hundred and fifty of the best motor mechanics in the vicinity of New
York in the First Reserve Aero Squadron at Mineola eagerly awaiting order to
take them to France. With them were a lot of officer with valuable business
training, every one of whom is urgently needed here. Every man and officer in
that squadron would be of the greatest value right here, right now, but they are left
fretting and chafing down there because of some more damned red tape.
87
Fortunately for all involved, literally tens of thousands of young men volunteered to join
the Signal Enlisted Reserve Corps after the U.S. declared war on Germany. Once accepted,
these prospective pilots became flying cadets with a salary of $30 per month.
18
After certain preliminary flights the candidates performed the Reserve Military Aviator
test indicating successful completion of the flight school. This qualified them for a commission
as a reserve officer. The test included the following requirements:
(1) Climb out of a field 2,000 feet square and attain 500 feet altitude, keeping all
parts of the machine inside the square during the climb.
(2) Glides at normal angle, with motor throttled. Spirals to right and left. Change of
direction in gliding.
(3) At 1,000 feet, cut off motor and land within 200 feet of a previously designated
point.
(4) Land over an assumed obstacle 10 feet high and come to a rest within 1,500 feet
of then same.
(5) Cross-country triangular flight of 30 miles, passing over two previously
designated points. Minimum altitude 2,500 feet.
(6) Straight-away cross country flight of 30 miles. Landing to be made at designated
destination. Both outward and return flight at minimum altitude of 2,500 feet.
(7) Fly for 45 minutes at an altitude of 4,000 feet.
During the eight to twelve weeks required for basic flight training, cadets received
training on astronomy, the principles of flight, proper radio operations, the use of codes, aerial
photography, aircraft maintenance, and machine-gun use.
88
After completing ground school
training, the newly commissioned officers typically attended preliminary flight training where
they learned the basic of handling and flying an actual aircraft. Unfortunately, the supply of
preliminary flight training facilities could not meet the growing output from the many ground
schools. As a result, the US Air Service sent a significant number of newly-minted officers to
Canada for their preliminary flight training. An additional number went to France to receive
training. However, transportation delays further compounded the problem for several more
months.
89
Bolling stated:
Since I have taken charge of the training over here also, I have been much
concerned over the way it is being handled in the United States. When I left
America I had definite assurance that sixty men, ten trained and fifty untrained,
would be started for France immediately—but they reached here only yesterday,
two months after they were promised to Major Tulasne and myself. It was also
promised that others would follow every month and that mechanics would be sent
in the ratio of eight to one student pilot. The French received word of this and
made preparations in their schools, holding vacancies and others interfering with
their own progress and output.
The failure to send the promised number of student pilots and mechanics had
disappointed and upset the French no little, and has set us back seriously in
training pilots and mechanics for early use. I cabled England that the British
offered to take on hundred student aviators with as many mechanics as we could
19
send, and keep that number always in their schools, but nothing has been done
about this opportunity and I am afraid it also may have been lost, though I hope I
can yet obtain this training if I have definite assurances when the men will arrive.
The Italians offered to train five hundred men before the first of the year. I cabled
this offer to Washington, but again no action.
Now this is perfect nonsense. Our best and almost only chance to turn men out
this autumn is in the British, French, and Italian schools, and not a day should be
lost in drawing men from the ground schools or taking green men and shipping
them over here. The is no trouble whatsoever to obtain transportation, for every
passenger steamer which comes carries only one-third or one-fourth of its quota
of the first and second class passengers.
90
After completion of preliminary training, most American aviators left for Europe, where
they completed their advanced training and gunnery training due to a shortage of such schools in
the US. To further compound the problem, in August 1917 General Pershing told the US War
Department that he “Cannot have too many pilots too soon. Send them over and we will take
care of them.”
91
The first cadets arrived in France in August and September 1917, with the majority
arriving between October and December 1917. The only US school active at the time was
located at Tours, France. The Tours site, formerly a French Air Service base, began operating as
a primary flying training school on November 1, 1917. The school was originally slated to serve
as an observation school but the pressing need for basic flight training took precedence over all
other flying instruction needs.
Issoudon
As mentioned previously, the sudden influx of men required the US Army to scramble to
build suitable training facilities both at home and abroad. To help their new comrades in arms,
the French military suggested to General Squier that the US construct a base approximately 9
miles from the small town of Issoudon in the central region of France. A contingent of US
personnel accepted the site in June 1917. One month later, on 2 July 1917, the Aviation Officer,
American Expeditionary Forces created a Training Section divided into five divisions: Personnel,
Records, Materiel, Training, and Inspection and Intelligence. Officers assigned to the section
took charge of pursuit instruction, bombardment instruction, aerial gunnery, and observation.
The officers increased their staff by adding assistants taken from the ranks of officers and cadets
that had recently arrived in France for training.
92
The men of the Training Section oversaw the establishment of nine Aviation Instruction
Centers to handle advanced and specialized training for Air Service, AEF. The 3rd Aviation
Instruction Center (3 AIC) Issoudon, France, proved to be one of the most important such
training centers during the war. Equipped with 10 runways to handle a large amount of flying
traffic, the 50 square-mile base had the best facilities of the day including two field hospitals and
seven geographically separated camps.
20
Squadron Barracks at the Third Aviation Instruction Center (Photo: AFHRA)
Captain James Ely Miller, a former Wall Street banker and the founder of the New York Air
National Guard who had joined the 1st Aero Reserve shortly before the US declaration of war,
joined General Pershing’s staff in Paris. Shortly thereafter, Colonel Bolling appointed Miller as
the first commander of the 3 AIC, which contained several other members formerly assigned to
the 1st Reserve Aero Squadron. In fact, as historian Pearson argued, the men of the 1st Reserve
Aero Squadron “played a brilliant part in building up the Air Service of the A.E.F.”
93
In August 1917, Miller left Paris along with Hamilton Coolidge and Douglas Campbell.
When they arrived at Issoudon, which developed into the largest flying training center in the
world, the area had twelve tents and a company of engineers busily constructing more-permanent
facilities.
94
An early visitor to the developing site stated:
There are acres of ground just littered with great piles of lumber, and supplies of
every description. Our own branch railway bringing carloads of everything.
Many buildings of all kinds are already up and going: others in the process of
speedy construction. Half a mile away you can see row after row of great canvas
hangers….Everywhere is hustle, activity, (and loads of mud).
95
Aware that they couldn’t accomplish much with the area still under construction Miller and
his colleagues returned to Paris to try and acquire aircraft and equipment for the base. At the
beginning of October 1917, Miller and his men, which included Coolidge, Campbell, Quentin
Roosevelt, and Edward Rickenbacker returned to Issoudon. Members of the 1
st
Reserve Aero
Squadron, who had arrived at Issoudon the previous month, rounded out the initial staff.
96
Unfortunately for Miller, General Pershing was not impressed when he visited Issoudon in
November 1917. Colonel Edgar S. Gorell, Assistant Chief of Staff, Air Service, AEF, explained:
21
Douglas Campbell
Douglas Campbell was born in San Francisco on 7 June 1896. A student at Harvard
University during much of World War I, Campbell and his friend Quentin Roosevelt, the son of
Theodore Roosevelt, left school and joined the US Army on 18 May 1917. Campbell then trained at
the School of Military Aeronautics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Shortly thereafter,
on 23 July 23, 1917, Campbell boarded a ship headed to France for further training.
Within two months of arriving in France, on 29 September 1917, Campbell received a
promotion to first lieutenant. In early 1918, Campbell received advanced aviation training at the 3rd
Aviation Instruction Center at Issoudun, France, and the 6th Aviation Instruction Center at Cassaux,
France. Once he had completed his training, the Air Service, AEF assigned Campbell to the 94th
Pursuit Squadron. Known as the “Hat in the Ring” because of the insignia they painted on the
fuselage of their aircraft, the men of the 94th Aero Squadron proved themselves to be a group of
very talented aviators. Campbell proved to be a talented as any of the men in his unit.
On June 5, 1918, Campbell and his wingman James Miessner shot down a Rumpler near
Nancy, France. During the engagement, an explosive bullet fired from a German aircraft hit
Campbell in the back. While he survived the wound, Campbell’s condition required him to return to
the U.S. to recuperate. Fellow pilot Eddie Rickenbacker stated that, “Had it not been for this
unfortunate accident Lieutenant Douglas Campbell would undoubtedly have one of the highest
scores of victories claimed by any air-fighter, for he was just entering upon his full stride.”
While convalescing in the U.S., the Aviation Section promoted Campbell to the rank of
captain. Then, on November 8, 1918, Campbell returned to France just in time to witness the end of
the “Great War.” Campbell transferred to Germany with the Army of Occupation. He remained in
the newly-defeated nation until January 1, 1919, when he returned to the U.S.
22
The situation was, however, very unsatisfactory, as the barracks and
accommodations at the school were of the crudest kind, and it had been
impossible to build roads before the rainy weather made the camp a sea of mud.
The flying field itself was newly sown and mud thrown from the airplanes broke
propellers almost as fast as they could be put on. No machine shops had been
established and no materials for their erection were at hand, nor were there any
machine tools or power available. All mechanical work to be done in a two
machine-shop trucks brought from America.
97
Concerned that things had not progressed fast enough, General Pershing placed Major Carl
Spaatz in command of the 3 AIC. Miller did not leave Issoudon. Instead, he stayed at the 3 AIC
as the commander of Advance Field 5.
Training Intensifies
Spaatz helped oversee the rapid development of Issoudun. The curriculum they
developed at Issoudon revolved around the intricacies of pursuit aircraft and pursuit tactics.
Instruction included advanced flying training in the Nieuport 15 (15-meter wingspan) and the
Nieuport 18 (18-meter wingspan).
98
After completing an advanced flying course, student pilots participated in intensive
training in acrobatics, formation flying, and mock dogfighting with camera guns in place of
working machine-guns. Many also received some night flying training as a result of the British
Royal Flying Corps’ success while attacking at night. Upon finishing those courses, students
attended an aerial gunnery course at the French school at Cazaux, at the US school at St. Jean-
de-Monts, or at Issoudun. In total 766 pursuit pilots trained at Issoudun. Of that number, 627
served in the Zone of Advance while the remainder served as instructors, staff pilots, and testers.
These included First Lieutenant Edward Rickenbacker, the 3 AIC’s first graduate.
99
The increase in the number of trainees arriving at Issoudun had some unfortunate results.
On many instances, the training proved unforgiving, with an average of one death for every 9.2
graduates versus one out of 50 for observation, reconnaissance, and bombardment students. In
total, 218 pilots and observers met their end at one of the many US training centers. Those
deaths included 169 students and 49 instructors, testers, and transfer pilots. Not surprisingly, a
great number of those deaths occurred when flying the faster aircraft types used to train pursuit
pilots at Issoudun. While the use of parachutes may have lowered the number of deaths, the use
of parachutes by pursuit pilots remained in the “experimental stage” throughout World War I.
100
23
Field 3, Third Aviation Instruction School (Photo: AFHRA)
Miller’s Death
On February 20 1918, Bert M. Atkinson, commander of the 1
st
Pursuit Organization and
Training Center, selected Miller to command the 95th Aero Squadron located at Villeneuve,
France. Soon thereafter, Miller took a group of pilots with him to retrieve the 95 AS’s aircraft
from Paris. The group returned to Villeneuve on March 6, 1918, with fifteen Nieuport 28
aircraft. The men of the 95 AS proceeded to put the aircraft through their paces. Miller, eager to
see the front lines for himself, asked two pilots he knew to help him solve a problem. Miller
explained that, while he was in command of the first US pursuit squadron at the front, he had
“never seen the lines from the air.” Thus, he argued “I need the experience for myself but I need
it more to give me some prestige with these pilots.” The pilots, Major Davenport Johnson and
Major Millard Harmon, spoke with their commander who lent Miller an airplane to fly the
following day.
101
The following day, March 7, 1918, Miller awoke and flew his unarmed Nieuport to Coincy,
France, to retrieve the armed SPAD set aside for him to fly. Miller then joined Major Johnson
and Major Harmon on patrol above Juvincourt-et-Damary, France. Engine trouble shortly after
takeoff forced Harmon to return to Coincy but the Miller and Johnson continued unabated. The
two pilots encountered German aircraft near the town of Reims, France. Johnson, whose guns
jammed, broke off the engagement while Miller continued the fight. Within moments, witnesses
on the ground saw Miller’s aircraft enter a tailspin while the two German aircraft followed in
close pursuit.
102
Miller did not survive his first combat sortie.
103
Miller’s death took a tool on the men of the 95 AS. His friend Phillip Roosevelt explained
that “everything is in the air and Jim was the only man who seemed to have definite ideas about
24
what a squadron ought to be, to have and to do.”
104
To help fill the void left by Miller’s passing,
Atkinson selected First Lieutenant Seth Low to lead the 95 AS.
105
Low, a former member of the
1st Reserve Aero Squadron, held the post for a week before Major Davenport Johnson took
command of the unit.
106
Bolling’s Death
Several weeks after Miller’s untimely death, another former member of the 1st Reserve
Aero Squadron met his fate while serving in France. In March 1918, the German’s began
another large offensive to try and break the stalemate on the Western Front. The German’s made
a significant breakthrough along the British Fifth Army’s lines shortly thereafter. On March 26,
1918, Bolling and his driver, Private Paul Holder, passed near Amiens, France, on the Amiens-
Saint-Quentin Road to inspect Air Service, AEF, forces at the front. Unfortunately, both men
were caught in the crossfire between German and British forces.
On 14 January 1919, Private Holder provided his statement regarding Bolling’s death.
Holder stated:
We left the hotel at Amiens about 9:30 a.m. on the 26th of March, 1918, headed
for Harbonniers Aerodrome, which we found evacuated. Upon finding the
Aerodrome evacuated, we decided to drive towards the lines. After several
kilometers, we arrived at Estrées, where we met three English Infantry Officers,
one Major and two Lieutenants (we had brought the Major's servant back to
Amiens from Champien the day before). Colonel Bolling inquired of the Major:
"How far is the Hun away?" They replied: "Three miles away is our latest
knowledge," and that it would be all right for us to go up on the top of the hill,
which was about 1 1/2 miles away. It is at Estrées that the Somme battlefield
opens out, and upon continuing on some 300 yards after leaving these officers, we
ran into a nest of German machine-guns; the Germans opened fire upon us, from
both sides of the road. The Colonel thereupon remarked something to the effect
that "This is getting too warm," and I endeavored to turn the car in order to retrace
our steps; but as the machine-guns were but 150 feet from us, their continuous fire
quickly put the motor out of commission, so that I was unable to turn the car.
Colonel Bolling then gave me orders to jump out of the car into a shell hole on the
side of the road, which I did. Colonel Bolling likewise left the car and took shelter
in another near-by shell hole. A ditch connected the shell hole in which I lay and
the; one in which Colonel Bolling was, and he could see me. The machine-gun
fire of the Germans continued for about fifteen minutes and was directed both at
the car and the shell holes in which Colonel Bolling and I had taken shelter. After
the machine-guns ceased firing, two German officers appeared at the edge of the
shell hole in which I was lying; I was unarmed and was unable to make any
resistance, and was shot at twice by one of the German officers as I lay in the
shell hole waiting to see what course Colonel Bolling would take. As these
German officers fired at me, Colonel Bolling fired at them with his revolver
(which was the only firearm in the possession of either of us), killing one German
officer and was in turn killed by the return fire of the other officer. He was
25
instantly killed by a bullet through the heart, and received a second wound on the
head from the fire of the Germans.
The German officer who shot Colonel Bolling then retired from the scene,
evidently toward his machine-gun, leaving Colonel Bolling and me. I lay still in
the shell hole about thirty minutes, the German patrol having passed beyond
where I lay, going in a westerly direction. Shortly after the patrol passed me,
German infantry occupied the territory. Upon becoming aware of the presence of
the infantry, I decided to feign dead until darkness came on, when I then thought I
could make my way through the German lines to our own line, but as I lay
feigning death, five infantry men stepped down in my shell hole and rolled me
over. Upon finding that I was not dead, they commenced to ask me question in
German, amongst which was whether or not I was American. One of these men
then went to the car and brought back the Colonel's small handbag, asking me for
the key. Upon my telling him I had no key, he ripped the bag open with his
bayonet and took some minor articles, but did not take the entire contents of the
bag. One of the men then searched my clothes and took everything I had. The
man who had ripped open the bag then fixed the bayonet to his gun and marched
me behind the German lines to a prison camp.
107
After the war, Major General Mason M. Patrick, who served as air chief of the American
Expeditionary Forces in France, recalled Bolling’s impact. He stated that, "It was a privilege of
mine to know Colonel Bolling in France. This was before I joined the Air Service, in the dark
days of the winter of 1917-18, when even to us who knew the potential strength of our country,
who built high hopes upon her being a factor in the war -- what had been done seemed very little,
almost enough to make one lose heart. It was then that I met Colonel Bolling and learned to
admire his attitude, his determination, his conviction that we should soon be ready to play our
part in that mighty struggle. He was working, whole-heartedly and with a single purpose. He
meant to make the Air Service count, and although the difficulties had been many, I marveled at
what he had accomplished."
108
Bingham Takes Command
Hiram Bingham, recently promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, took command of the 3
AIC in August 1918. Bingham’s previous experience as an aviator, professor, and explorer
served him well during his tenure. He quickly adapted to his new position and helped the 3 AIC
weather some of the busiest flying months of the entire war, which included the Battle of Saint-
Mihiel (12-15 September 1918) and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive (26 September 1918-11
November 1918).
26
Bolling and Staff at Issoudun, France (Photo: AFHRA)
Recalling his time at Issoudon, Bingham recalled that the 3 AIC had changed a great deal in
the short time he had been away. The fields that had once been muddy and strewn with lumber
were neatly manicured and full of living quarters, work centers, and aircraft hangers. According
to Bingham, the facilities at the 3 AIC had developed to such an extent that he had an
engineering department at his disposal that could handle nearly any challenge when it came to
repairing damaged aircraft.
109
Bingham stated that “If a crashed plane proved to be a total
wreck, it was carefully salvaged, all the precious bolts and screws that were so hard to obtain in
France during war times were rescued, and everything that could be used again was turned into
the supply stores from which planes were rebuilt.”
110
Despite the robust facilities at the 3 AIC, many aircraft parts remained hard to obtain due to
wartime circumstances that slowed their delivery to the field. Such hard-to-acquire aircraft parts
included dope and cloth for the wings, wood, glue, aluminum, steel cables, paint, and varnish.
Bingham lamented that the shortage of aircraft parts forced his men to cannibalize other aircraft,
often aircraft damaged in crashes, just to keep up with the flying hour demand. Yet, Bingham
recalled that his repair shop rebuilt approximately 20 aircraft each week, saving the US
government more than $100,000 a week.
111
27
Test Department Repair Shops at Issoudun, France (Photo: AFHRA)
Issoudon also boasted a large aero supply warehouse originally organized by Captain H.B.
Close and further improved by Lieutenant Selmer J. Tilleson. The variety of aircraft flown at the
3 AIC included 17 different types of Nieuport aircraft, four types of Moraine aircraft, three types
of SPAD aircraft, and several others. As a result, the warehouse contained thousands of
individual parts listed under 30,000 different separate categories.
112
While warehouse operations served as a point of pride for Bingham, such was not the case on
every front. Bingham related that he had a difficult time procuring enough gasoline to fuel the
sorties needed to sustain the high-paced training requirements. He explained that the officers
distributing the fuel from other locations were slow to appreciate the fact that the 3 AIC flew as
many as 1,000 hours per day, since each aircraft used between 12 to 20 gallons per hour.
113
28
St. Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
After the defeat of German Army at the First Battle of the Marne, Generals Erich von
Falkenhayn and Hermann von Strantz attempted to capture Verdun with a converging maneuver.
On 24 September 1914, the French 3rd Army stopped von Falkenhayn’s army short of the
objective, but failed to halt von Strantz’s forces until after they captured St. Mihiel. As a result,
the offensive created a new battle line 24 miles wide along the base and 14 miles deep. This V
shape protrusion in the line became known as the St. Mihiel Salient. It featured rugged, heavily
wooded areas along the Meuse River, as well as the Woevre plains, which contained the
detached heights Loupmont and Montsec and afforded high ground and good visibility for the
entrenched German forces. Furthermore, heavy rains in the fall made the Wovre plains virtually
impassable due to mud. The French First Army attempted unsuccessfully to retake the Salient in
February and again in April 1915. German forces shored up the defenses at the Salient, creating
two defensive lines. The first, the Wilhelm position, was near to and paralleled the French line at
the front. Five kilometers to the rear of the Wilhelm line, was a much more strongly fortified
line known as the Schroerer line. It extended from St. Mihiel and ran along the base of the
Salient.
114
Pushing back the St. Mihiel Salient and eliminating the bulge in the front was an
important focus of Allied war planning. All attempts to reclaim St. Mihiel since 1914 had failed.
In July 1918, the American Expeditionary Force received its first great test of World War I.
They were to push back the St. Mihiel salient. From an Air Power perspective, the St. Mihiel
Offensive was important for several reasons. It was the first American led battle of WWI and
marked the first usage of a combined air force operating under the command of an individual
employed in conjunction with a ground offensive.
115
St. Mihiel was also the greatest air battle of
WWI and employed the single largest collection of aircraft during the war. Allied aircraft for the
battle totaled 1,476 with German opposition totaling 500 aircraft.
116
The overall Allied strategic offensive plan on the Western front called for the reduction in
the various salients that interfered with railroad communications. One such line, the Paris-Nancy
railroad, ran through the St. Mihiel salient. The St. Mihiel offensive can generally be broken into
two phases. The planning phase occurred from 10 August 1918 to 11 September 1918 and the
attack phase occurred from 12-16 September 1918.
117
The objectives of the St. Mihiel offensive
were the opening of the Paris-Nancy railroad, the securing of a suitable line from which to
launch the planned follow on offensive into Meuse-Argonne, and the seasoning of American
forces in their first real test of the war. The ground attack, planned by General John Pershing,
called for a converging attack on two sides of the salient, with the main attack occurring against
the southern face, while a third force performed a holding attack against the nose of the
salient.
118
The Air campaign plan, created by Col Billy Mitchell, complemented the ground
plan. Presented to Pershing on 20 August 1918, the objectives were the destruction of enemy air
forces to gain air superiority and prevent them from over flying the allied lines, the
reconnaissance of enemy positions to include location and direction of artillery fire, and the
destruction of ground forces and supply lines through strafing and bombardment.
119
Mitchell
separated the proposed attack into four phases, preparation, night preceding the attack, day of the
attack, and exploitation. He then further allocated air assets for each phase into three categories,
observation, pursuit, and bombardment. The preparation phase consisted mainly of
29
Frank Luke
Frank Luke Jr. was born in Phoenix, Arizona, on 19 May 1896. His father, Frank Luke Sr.,
immigrated to the United States from Westphalia, Prussia, and his mother came from a family that
immigrated from Alsace-Loraine.
On 25 September 1917, Luke enlisted as a private first class in the Aviation Section. Luke
subsequently attended flight training at the University of Texas School for Military Aeronautics in
Austin, Texas. After leaving Austin, Luke attended the Signal Corps Aviation School at Rockwell
Field in San Diego, California. After completing the requisite aviation training, Luke accepted a
commission as a second lieutenant in the Aviation Section, Signal Officer’s Reserve Corps.
Shortly after receiving his commission, Luke traveled to France to the 3rd Aviation Instruction
Center for Aerial Gunnery School in Cazaux, France. After having demonstrated superb
marksmanship, Luke joined the 27th Aero Squadron in July 1918. Described as arrogant and
reckless by many in his squadron, Luke possessed an immense drive to prove himself.
On 29 September 1918, Luke jumped in the cockpit of his aircraft for the final time. Despite
having been grounded by his squadron commander, Luke took off in search of German targets.
Within minutes, Luke had destroyed five enemy balloons. During the engagement Luke’s aircraft
was damaged by German ground fire, which forced him to land in the French village of Murvaux
which was occupied by German troops.
30
reconnaissance. The night before the attack plan consisted of bombardment attacks on personnel
and strategic objectives. The plan for the day of the attack consisted of offensive missions deep
to the rear of the enemy lines aimed at weakening German air defenses, bombardment missions
with pursuit aircraft protection aimed at strategic targets such as airdromes, and protective
missions against enemy reserves if necessary. Exploitation operations aimed to extend the zone
of action by moving forward to new targets and attacking the retreating formations at opportune
times.
120
By the start of the St. Mihiel offensive on 12 September 1918, Mitchell either had direct
control of or could rely on the assistance of 1,481 allied aircraft including 701 pursuit, 366
observation, 323 day bombers, and 91 night bombers. The Allied powers possessed a ten to one
numerical advantage in pursuit aircraft. In addition, German pilots were still getting used to
flying the new Fokker D VII. The result was that, despite German reinforcements, the Allies
never lost air superiority. However, unescorted day bombers remained particularly vulnerable to
German pursuits. The 1st Day Bombardment Group lost 31 bombers during the offensive, 16
from one squadron alone.
121
This led to a baiting strategy in which day bombers and observation
aircraft drew out the German pursuit planes, which quickly fell prey to nearby allied fighters. In
total, American airmen fired 30,000 rounds of ammunition, dropped 75 tons of bombs, destroyed
12 balloons, and 60 aircraft during the four-day battle.
122
Results could have been even better if
not for the flying limitations brought on by weather, which created the worst flying conditions
American airmen had faced up to that point. Cloud cover often masked the retreat of German
troops, which hampered attacks on strategic targets, as well as targets of opportunity.
Nevertheless, the Battle of St. Mihiel was seen as a success. By the second day of the offensive,
Allied forces had gained enough ground to open the Paris-Nancy rail line, which allowed for the
follow-on Meuse-Argonne campaign. Air power contributed to the success of troops on the
ground and the Allies only lost 7,000 men over the course of the four-day battle, which was a
low number for a major offensive in WWI.
The Meuse-Argonne
A series of separate engagements, the Meuse-Argonne campaign spanned 47 days from
26 September 1918 until the Armistice on 11 November 1918. Billy Mitchell expounded on the
tactics the Air Service, AEF, had used during the Battle of St. Mihiel. The weather during the
entirety of the offensive proved more amenable than during the four days of the Battle of St.
Mihiel, which aided Mitchell’s quest for air superiority. As they had at St. Mihiel, US pursuit
aircraft once again used day bombers as bait for German fighters. The tactic proved effective.
For example, on 4 October 1918, American pursuit aircraft shot down 11 Fokker and
Pfalz biplanes that had attacked three bombardment squadrons. However, unlike the Battle of St.
Mihiel, the day bombardment aircraft proved adept at protecting themselves, often flying in large
formation to mass their firepower. In fact, large formations proved to be a hallmark of the
Meuse-Argonne offensive and a major difference from the tactics used during St. Mihiel. From
the beginning of the offensive, General Mitchell sent out large pursuit groups of approximately
100 aircraft deep into German held territory to attack observation balloons, strafe enemy troops,
and overwhelm the outnumbered German fighters. The largest formation occurred on 9 October
31
1918, when Mitchell sent 200 US bombardment aircraft and 100 pursuit aircraft to attack
German troop concentrations.
Despite the successes of the campaign, it was the deadliest of World War I for the
American Expeditionary Force, which suffered casualties totaling 110,000 men. By the end of
World War I, the Air Service, had destroyed 776 enemy planes, 72 balloons, dropped 138 tons of
bombs in 150 raids, and took 18,000 photographs of German positions. However, those
achievements came with a high price. In total, the US Air Service, AEF, suffered 569 killed and
wounded, 654 killed in accidents or by illness, and the loss of 290 aircraft and 37 balloons.
123
Individual Achievements
It is difficult to gauge the overall impact of Reservists on operations during WWI. There
were no organized Reserve aviation units in combat at the time. Therefore, all Air Service
Reserve participation was by individual Reservists scattered throughout the total force.
However, several notable Air Service Reservists participated in combat. Among them were
Hamilton Coolidge, Charles D’Olive, Frank Luke, Douglas Campbell, Quentin Roosevelt, Hiram
Bingham, Raynall Bolling, William Bond, Robert Stone Oliver, Charles Henry Ramsey, Frank
Edward White, and Allen Winslow.
Frank Luke, known as the balloon buster, was the first airman recipient of the Medal of
Honor. The second leading ace of the War, Luke shot down fourteen balloons and four airplanes
while flying with the 27th Pursuit Squadron. He preferred to attack in late afternoon, when the
shadows from the sun concealed his dark colored SPAD from fighters patrolling above. He died
on 29 September 1918 after shooting down three balloons and taking heavy fire. Wounded, he
crash landed his aircraft, exchanged gunfire with a German patrol, and received a mortal wound
from a German rifle.
124
This action earned him the Medal of Honor.
Lt. Hamilton Coolidge of the 94th Pursuit Squadron also earned a reputation as an adept
balloon killer, downing three balloons in addition to five aircraft, earning him ace status.
Coolidge died on 27 October 1918 during the Meuse-Argonne offensive after his SPAD took a
direct hit from German Artillery.
125
His best friend, Harvard classmate, and fellow Reservist, Lt. Quentin Roosevelt, son of
former President Theodore Roosevelt, died on 14 July 1918, after a spirited dogfight with three
German Fokkers. Becoming separated from his flight, he received a mortal wound from German
ace Sergeant Karl Thom. He was credited with great heroism by flight leader Lt. Edward Buford
who stated that, “…he certainly died fighting, for any one of us could have gotten away as soon
as the scrap started with the clouds as they were that morning.”
126
Roosevelt was one of the
most popular men in the 95th Pursuit Squadron and his death inflicted a devastating blow to unit
morale.
127
Charles D’Olive, of the 93rd Pursuit Squadron, was also a highly decorated airman. He
was the last ace of World War I, receiving credit for his fifth kill in 1963. He earned the
Distinguished Service Cross for his actions on 13 September 1918 during the battle of St. Mihiel.
One of D’Olive’s wingmen, Lt. Walter E. Case, described the action,
32
Quentin Roosevelt
Quentin Roosevelt, the youngest of former President Theodore Roosevelt was born 19
November 1897. He saw his first airplanes in Europe in the summer of 1909. “We were
at Rheims and saw all the aeroplanes flying,” Quentin wrote in a letter to a school friend
back in the States, “and saw Curtis (sic) who won the Gordon Bennett cup for swiftest
flight.” At an average speed of 47 mph, airplane designer Glenn Curtiss won the first
Bennett Trophy race at the world’s first air meet near Rheims, France.
Roosevelt was mechanically inclined and enjoyed buying and repairing old disabled
motorcycles and automobiles in order to take them apart and repair them. Desiring to
serve his country, Roosevelt attended the Student Military Instruction Camp held at
Plattsburg in the summer of 1916. Soon thereafter, in May 1917, Roosevelt joined the 1st
Reserve Aero Squadron.
Arriving in France with the rest of the 1st Reserve Aero Squadron, Roosevelt helped set
up the 3rd Aviation Instruction School at Issoudun, France. Popular among his fellow
officers, Roosevelt attended pilot training at Issoudun. Assigned to the 95th Aero
Squadron, Roosevelt was described as a talented and daring pilot. Roosevelt scored his
first aerial victory on 10 July 10 1918. Four days later, during the Second Battle of the
Marne, he was shot down behind German lines.
Roosevelt flew for the last time on 14 July 1918. While engaged in aerial combat over
Chamery, he was struck in the head by two machine-gun bullets. The German military
buried him with full military honors using two pieces of basswood saplings, bound
together with wire from his Nieuport 28, to fashion a cross for his grave.
33
September 13th is marked with red letters in the history of our pilots. About 17
o'clock, after an observation mission some kilometers behind the lines. One of our
formations became somewhat split up. Lt. D'Olive met a patrol of the 103rd
Squadron, just as the latter was about to engage in combat with several enemy
planes. D'Olive attacked one Fokker with Lt. Furlow of the 103rd, and last saw
the blacked crossed machine spiraling at an altitude of about 100 meters. D'Olive
climbed hurriedly and attacked another Fokker with Lt. Furlow, at an altitude of
about 500 meters. This enemy plane was seen to crash near St. Benoit. Again
D'Olive climbed up to about 500 meters, attacking a third time. He followed his
adversary down till he saw him crash not far from the second plane. With three
planes to his credit, D'Olive flew home, there to be congratulated by an admiring
group of comrades, and, later, to be recommended for the D.S.C.
128
Post-War
The US Air Service, AEF, had 45 squadrons and 457 serviceable aircraft at the end of the
conflict. In addition, the Air Service had a total of 195,023 officers and men serving with the
Air Service, AEF.
129
On 17 December 1918, Major General Mason Patrick, Chief of the Air
Service, wrote to Bingham thanking him for his “excellent work” while in charge of the 3 AIC.
Upon leaving the 3 AIC on 1 January 1919, Bingham returned to US and took a job at the Air
Service Headquarters in Washington D.C. where he remained until 8 March 1919 when his
discharge papers arrived. In Bingham’s memoirs of his time in uniform, published in 1921 with
the title An Explorer in the Air Service, he recalled that he was intially under the impression that
the US Air Service was fully prepared for war. However, he stated that “It was amazing and
very disconcerting to learn that the General Staff of the Army had apparently made no plans for
the part which aviation was to take in the war.”
130
For most, the transition to civilian life proved to be rather quick, while for others the
process took up to a year or more. By the middle of 1919, the Air Service had dwindled in size
to just 15,875 men. Many men took jobs in the civilian world never again donned a military
uniform. Others continued to serve their nation in uniform. Major James Meissner, who served
in both the 94
th
Aero Squadron and the 147
th
Aero Squadron, moved to Birmingham, Alabama,
after the war to work for the Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Company. While in
Birmingham, Meissner helped transform the Birmingham Flying Club into the 135
th
Observation
Squadron. Hiram Bingham, another former member of the Signal Officers Reserve Corps,
published the account of his wartime experience in 1920 and, in 1922, the citizens of
Connecticut elected him as the state’s lieutenant governor. Two years later, on 16 December
1924, Bingham was elected to the US Senate to replace Senator Frank Bosworth Brandegee.
131
Conclusion
The US military entered World War I mostly unprepared for the enormity of the task it
faced. The US Army did not have the active-duty, National Guard, or Reserve aviation forces it
needed to accomplish they immense task before it. Fortunately, many talented and ingenious
men stepped forward to do their part to win the war in the air. Commissioned into the Signal
Officers Reserve Corps and enlisted into the Signal Enlisted Reserve Corps, men such as Major
34
Raynal Bolling, Major Hiram Bingham, Captain Phillip Carroll, Captain Douglas Campbell,
Lieutenant Frank Luke, and Lieutenant Charles D’Olive proved that talented civilians could do
great things in uniform. Their important contributions paved the way for future generations of
US military aviators.
35
Notes
1
Hew Strachan, “The Origins of the First World War,” International Affairs, 2014, pp. 429-439.
2
John Keegan, The First World War, pp. 52-77.
3
Howard Jones, Crucible of Power: A History of U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1897, p. 73.
4
Woodrow Wilson, “Address at Sea Girt, New Jersey Accepting the Democratic Nomination for
President,” ucsb.edu, 2 Sept 1916.
5
Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm April 1861 to April 1917, (Washington
D.C.: Office of Air Force History, United States Air Force, 1985), p. 233.
6
Ibid., 9-14.
7
Air Vice Marshall Ron Dick, RAF, Reach and Power: the Heritage of the United States Air
Force in Pictures and Artifacts, (Washington D.C.: Air Force History and Museum Programs,
1997) 4-5.
8
Emil R. Salvini, Hobey Baker: American Legend, (Saint Paul, Minnesota: The Hobey Baker
Memorial Foundation, 2005), 81-82.
9
Major General Benjamin D. Foulois with Colonel C.V. Glines, USAF, From the Wright
Brothers to the Astronauts: The Memoirs of Major General Benjamin D. Foulois, (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1968), 47.
10
Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm April 1861 to April 1917, (Washington
D.C.: Office of Air Force History, United States Air Force, 1985), 217.
11
Major General Benjamin D. Foulois with Colonel C.V. Glines, USAF, From the Wright
Brothers to the Astronauts: The Memoirs of Major General Benjamin D. Foulois, (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1968), 48.
12
Jill Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, pp. 27-28.
13
Ibid., pp. 33-38.
14
Major General Benjamin D. Foulois with Colonel C.V. Glines, USAF, From the Wright
Brothers to the Astronauts: The Memoirs of Major General Benjamin D. Foulois, (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1968), 65.
15
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 1-2.
16
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 23.
36
17
William Addleman Ganoe, The History of the United States Army, (New York: D. Appleton
and Company, 1924), 272-273, 288.
18
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 13-14.
19
John Garry Clifford, The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913-
1920, (Lexington KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1972), 5-9.
20
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 1-2.
21
William Addleman Ganoe, The History of the United States Army, (New York: D. Appleton
and Company, 1924), 431.
22
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 17-18.
23
Stephen L. Ossad, “The Frustrations of Leonard Wood,” Army Magazine, 1 Sep 2003.
24
Ibid..
25
Lt Col Robert J. Sperberg, Major General Leonard Wood; A Study of Leadership in an Army
Transition, (Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, USAWC Class of 1992), p 84.
26
John Garry Clifford, The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913-
1920, (Lexington KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1972), 5-9.
27
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 23.
28
William Addleman Ganoe, The History of the United States Army, (New York: D. Appleton
and Company, 1924), 445.
29
John Garry Clifford, The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913-
1920, (Lexington KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1972), 11.
30
Ibid., p. 12.
31
Ibid., pp. 16-17.
32
Leonard Wood, Major General, Chief of Staff, “Report of the Chief of Staff,” (Washington
D.C.: War Department, Office of the Chief of Staff, October 31, 1913), in The Abridgement:
Containing the Annual Address of the President of the United States to the Two Houses of
37
Congress 63d Congress 2d Session with Reports of Departments and Selections from
Accompanying Papers, (Washington, 1913) 231.
33
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 24.
34
Dorey Halstead, “The Plattsburg Contribution to Military Training,” Proceedings of the
Academy of Political Science in the State of New York, Vol 6. No 4., Jul 1916, 230.
35
John Garry Clifford, The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913-
1920, (Lexington KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1972), 26-27.
36
Ibid., pp. 184-185.
37
Frank E. Vandiver, Black Jack, The Life and Times of John J. Pershing, (College Station:
Texas A&M, 1977) 585.
38
Juliette Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, pp. 110-111.
39
Ibid., p. 111.
40
John Garry Clifford, The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913-
1920, (Lexington KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1972), 52-53.
41
Ibid., pp. 54-60.
42
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 26.
43
John Garry Clifford, The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913-
1920, (Lexington KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1972), 68.
44
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Business Man in Uniform: Raynal Cawthorne Bolling, (New
York: Duffield & Co., 1923), 32, 58-60.
45
Ibid., p. 59.
46
Ibid., p. 60.
47
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 27.
48
Frank E. Vandiver, Black Jack, The Life and Times of John J. Pershing, (College Station:
Texas A&M, 1977) 604-605.
38
49
Major General Benjamin D. Foulois with Colonel C.V. Glines, USAF, From the Wright
Brothers to the Astronauts: The Memoirs of Major General Benjamin D. Foulois, (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1968), 119, 123, 125.
50
James E. Hewes, Jr., From Root to McNamara: Army Organization and Administration, 1900-
1963, (Washington D.C.: Center of Military History United States Army, 1975), 19-21.
51
James T. Currie and Richard B. Crossland, Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995, (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997), 26-27.
52
Ibid., p. 17.
53
Wilson authorized a total of 16 majors, 48 captains, and 232 first lieutenants for the Signal
Officers Reserve Corps and 40 master signal electricians; 140 sergeants, first class; 200
sergeants; 400 corporals; 305 privates, first class, and 915 privates in the Signal Enlisted Reserve
Corps. Jill Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, p. 185.
54
By 19 July 1917, the U.S. government had paid the Curtiss Company a total of $100,523 for
the training of 131 enlisted reservists. Ibid., p. 185.
55
While the 1st Reserve Aero Squadron proved to be more significant throughout World War I,
it was not the only Reserve Aero squadron. The 2nd Aero Company of the New York National
Guard followed the 1st Reserve Aero Squadron’s lead by providing the bulk of the men for the
2nd Reserve Aero Squadron. The 2nd Reserve Aero Squadron activated at Chandler Field
Aviation Station, Essington, Pennsylvania, on 12 July 1917. Shortly thereafter, the U.S. Army
prohibited the formation of any further Reserve Aero squadrons. The Aviation Section then re-
designated the 2nd Reserve Aero Squadron as the 45th Aero Squadron. Officially part of the
regular U.S. Army, the 45th Aero Squadron transferred from Chandler Field to Gerstner,
Louisiana, near Lake Charles, Louisiana, in July 1917. The members of the 45th Aero Squadron
spent the war training new aviators. The U.S. Army demobilized the unit in November 1918.
56
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Business Man in Uniform: Raynal Cawthorne Bolling, (New
York: Duffield & Co., 1923), 66.
57
Ibid., p. 67.
58
Ibid., p. 69-71.
59
Ibid., p. 90.
60
Ibid., p. 76-77.
61
John Garry Clifford, The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913-
1920, (Lexington KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1972), 55, 185.
62
Ibid., pp. 55, 185.
39
63
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Business Man in Uniform: Raynal Cawthorne Bolling, (New
York: Duffield & Co., 1923), 90.
64
Ibid., p. 84.
65
Charles Joseph Gross, The Air National Guard and the American Military Tradition,
(Washington D.C.: Historical Services Division, National Guard Bureau, 1995) 31.
66
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Business Man in Uniform: Raynal Cawthorne Bolling, (New York:
Duffield & Co., 1923), 83.
67
Gerald T. Cantwell, Citizen Airmen. A History of the Air Force Reserve 1946 – 1994,
(Washington, D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, 1997), 5.
68
“First Reserve Aero Squadron to Go to Europe,” Flying, Aero Club of America, Vol. 6, No. 5,
June 1917, 391.
69
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Business Man in Uniform: Raynal Cawthorne Bolling, (New
York: Duffield & Co., 1923), 109.
70
Charles Joseph Gross, The Air National Guard and the American Military Tradition,
(Washington D.C.: Historical Services Division, National Guard Bureau, 1995) 31; On 24
February 1917, some officers and enlisted men remained on active-duty with the 1
st
Aero
Company of the New York National Guard at Mineola and the 2
nd
Aero Company of the New
York National Guard at Memphis. The Chief of the Militia Bureau suggested that the
commanding General of the Eastern Department muster those men out of federal service. He
also recommended that the Chief of the Aviation Section submit a list of the officers and enlisted
men who he wanted to remain on active-duty. Jill Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm,
pp. 186-187.
71
Fact Sheet, 26 Space Aggressor Squadron (AFRC), Air Force Historical Research Agency.
72
Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm April 1861 to April 1917, (Washington
D.C.: Office of Air Force History, United States Air Force, 1985), 183.
73
Hiram Bingham, An Explorer in the Air Service, (New Haven CN: Yale University Press,
1920), 11-12.
74
Ibid., pp. 16-17.
75
Hiram Bingham, An Explorer in the Air Service, (New Haven CN: Yale University Press,
1920), pp. 20-21.
40
76
Rebecca H. Cameron, Training to Fly: Military Flight Training 1907-1945, Washington D.C.:
Air Force History and Museums Program, 1999), pp. 112-113.
77
Bingham, An Explorer in the Air Service, pp. 23-24.
78
Major General Benjamin D. Foulois with Colonel C.V. Glines, USAF, From the Wright
Brothers to the Astronauts: The Memoirs of Major General Benjamin D. Foulois, (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1968), 148; Businessman in Uniform, pp. 114-115.
79
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Businessman in Uniform, p. 117.
80
Ibid., pp. 119-120.
81
Ibid., p. 122.
82
Ibid., pp. 122-124.
83
Benjamin Foulois and Colonel C.V. Glines, From the Wright Brothers to the Astronauts: The
Memoirs of Major General Benjamin D. Foulois, P. 151.
84
Mauer Mauer, The U.S. Air Service in World War I, p. 76.
85
Ibid., p. 93
86
Ibid., p. 93.
87
Pearson, p. 138.
88
James J. Hudson, Hostiles Skies, p. 28.
89
Major Douglas A. Galipeau, “Issoudun: The Making of America’s First Eagles,” p. 17.
90
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Business Man in Uniform: Raynal Cawthorne Bolling, (New
York: Duffield & Co., 1923), pp. 136-147.
91
James J. Cooke, The US Air Service in the Great War, 1917-1919, p. 19.
92
Maurer Maurer, ed., The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vol. 1, The Office Air Force
History, p. 93.
93
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Business Man in Uniform: Raynal Cawthorne Bolling, (New
York: Duffield & Co., 1923), p. 105.
94
Bert Frandsen, Hat in the Ring: The Birth of American Air Power in the Great War, p. 38.
95
James J. Cooke, The US Air Service in the Great War, 1917-1919, p. 20.
41
96
Ibid., p. 38.
97
Colonel Edgar S. Gorrell (1891-1945) graduated from The US Military Academy at West
Point in 1912 and then spent two years as an infantryman in Alaska before transferring to the
Signal Corps. He joined the 1st Aero Squadron and served under General Pershing during the
Punitive Expedition in Mexico. In 1917, he was promoted to Captain. Shortly after the US
joined World War I, Gorell became the Chief Engineering Officer for the Air Service, and later,
the Chief of Staff for the Air Service. He also served as a member of the Bolling Mission before
being selected as the Chief Historian of the Air Service, AEF, on 4 December 1918. Maurer,
Maurer, ed., The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vol. 1, The Office Air Force History, p. 97.
98
James J. Hudson, Hostiles Skies: A Combat History of the American Air Service in World War
I, pp. 34-36.
99
Maurer Maurer, ed., The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vol. 1, The Office Air Force
History, p. 106.
100
Maurer Maurer, ed., The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vol. 1, The Office Air Force
History, p. 106.
101
Bert Frandsen, Hat in the Ring: The Birth of American Air Power in the Great War, pp. 22-
24.
102
Ibid., p. 24.
103
Miller’s death was not confirmed until a month after his death. The German’s provided
official confirmation of Miller’s death. Author Unknown, Flying, February 1918, pp. 344-345.
104
Bert Frandsen, Hat in the Ring, p. 24.
105
Low had been the captain of the Yale rowing crew in 1915. When the men of the 1
st
Reserve
Aero Squadron first reached France, Low took command and ensured that they made it through
flying training at the French Aviation School at Tours, France. Ibid., p. 33.
106
Ibid., pp. 24-25.
107
Henry Greenleaf Pearson, A Businessman in Uniform, p.
108
Stephens, “The Life and Death of Col. Raynal Bolling,” p. 1.
109
Hiram Bingham, Explorer in the Air Service, pp. 190-197.
110
Ibid., p. 190.
111
Hiram Bingham, Explorer in the Air Service, p. 191.
42
112
Ibid., pp. 202-203.
113
Ibid.
114
Allison J. Barnett, “Air Operations in the St. Mihiel Offensive.”
115
Maj Michael J.Taschner, “Examples of Airmindedness From America’s First Operational Air
campaign the St. Mihiel Offensive, 1918. p 1.
116
Lt Col Lauderbaugh, “The Air Battle of St. Mihiel: Air Campaign Planning Process
Background Paper,” (Airpower Research Institute).
117
Maurer Mauer, The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vol I. p235.
118
Allison J. Barnett, “Air Operations in the St. Mihiel Offensive.”
119
Lt Col Lauderbaugh, “The Air Battle of St. Mihiel: Air Campaign Planning Process
Background Paper.”
120
Mauer Mauer, ed., The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vol III, The Battle of St. Mihiel, p.
52, 53.
121
Richard Hallion, Rise of the Fighter Aircraft, 1914-1918, p. 144.
122
Bernard Nalty, ed., Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force,
vol I, 1907-1950, p 66; James J. Hudson, Hostile Skies: A Combat History of the American Air
Service in World War I (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1968), p. 139.
123
Bernard Nalty, ed., Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force,
vol I, 1907-1950, p 66.
124
Bernard Nalty, ed., Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force,
vol I, 1907-1950 (Washington: Office of Air Force History). p 64.
125
James J. Hudson, Hostile Skies: A Combat History of the American Air Service in World War
I (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1968). pp 278-283.
126
Kermit Roosevelt, Quentin Roosevelt: A Sketch with Letters ( Scribners: New York, 1921) pp
169–172.
127
James J. Hudson, Hostile Skies: A Combat History of the American Air Service in World War
I (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1968). p97.
128
Maurer Maurer, ed., The U.S. Air Service in World War I, vol III, The Battle of St. Mihiel
(Washington: Office of Air Force History, 1979). p 665.
43
129
James P. Tate, The Army and Its Air Corps: Army Policy toward Aviation, 1919-1941, p. 7.
130
Hiram Bingham, Explorer in the Air Service, pp. 217-218.
126
James P. Tate, The Army and Its Air Corps: Army Policy toward Aviation, 1919-1941, p. 7.
44
Recommended Reading
Bingham, Hiram. Explorer in the Air Service. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1920.
Cameron, Rebecca H. Training to Fly: Military Flight Training 1907-1945. Washington D.C.:
Air Force History and Museums Program, 1999.
Cantwell, Gerald T. Citizen Airmen. A History of the Air Force Reserve 1947-1994. Washington,
D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, 1997.
Clifford, John G. The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913-1920.
Lexington KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1972.
Cooke, James J. The U.S. Air Service in the Great War, 1917-1919. Westport, Conn.: Praeger,
1996.
Currie, James T. and Crossland, Richard B. Twice the Citizen: A History of the United States
Army Reserve, 1908-1995. Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 1997.
Dick, Ronald, Air Vice Marshall, RAF, Reach and Power: the Heritage of the United States Air
Force in Pictures and Artifacts. Washington D.C.: Air Force History and Museum Programs,
1997.
Foulois, Benjamin D. and Glines, C.V. From the Wright Brothers to the Astronauts: The
Memoirs of Major General Benjamin D. Foulois, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1968.
Frandsen, Bert. Hat in the Ring: The Birth of American Air Power in the Great War.
Washington: Smithsonian Books, 2003.
Ganoe, William Addleman. The History of the United States Army. New York: D. Appleton and
Company, 1924.
Gross, Charles Joseph. The Air National Guard and the American Military Tradition.
Washington D.C.: Historical Services Division, National Guard Bureau, 1995.
Hallion, Richard P. The Rise of the Fighter Aircraft, 1914-1918. Nautical & Aviation Pub Co of
America, 1998.
Hennessy, Jill, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917. Washington, D.C.:
Office of Air Force History, 1985.
Hewes, James E., Jr. From Root to McNamara: Army Organization and Administration, 1900-
1963. Washington D.C.: Center of Military History United States Army, 1975.
45
Howard Jones. Crucible of Power: A History of U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1897. Rowan and
Littlefield, 2001.
Keegan, John. The First World War. Vintage, 2000.
Lewis, W. David. Eddie Rickenbacker: An American Hero in the Twentieth Century. Baltimore:
The John Hopkins University Press, 2005.
Mauer, Mauer, ed. The U.S. Air Service in World War I. 4 Volumes. Washington, D.C.: Office
of Air Force History, 1979.
Morrow, John H., Jr. The Great War in the Air: Military Aviation from 1909-1921. Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.
Nalty, Bernard, ed., Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force,
Vol. I, 1907-1950, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1997.
Pearson, Henry Greenleaf. A Businessman in Uniform: Raynal Hawthorne Bolling, Duffield and
Company, 1923.
Salvini, Emil R., Hobey Baker: American Legend. Saint Paul: The Hobey Baker Memorial
Foundation, 2005.
Tate, James P. The Army and Its Air Corps: Army Policy toward Aviation, 1919-1941. Maxwell
AFB: Air University Press, 1998.
Vandiver, Frank E. Black Jack, The Life and Times of John J. Pershing. College Station: Texas
A&M, 1977.
46
Appendices
Appendix 1
Roster of the 1st Reserve Aero Company
Officer
Ward, Thomas W.
Bolling, Raynal C. (Major) Faye, James J.
Carroll, Philip A. (Captain) Harvey, Grinnel S.
Miller, James E. (Captain) Hill, Robert S.
Noyes, Daniel R. (First Lieutenant) Cooks
Bleakeman, Frederick L. (First Lieutenant) McGrath, James E.
Reed, Charles (First Lieutenant) Soule, Louis
Baker, Hobart A.H. (First Lieutenant) Fantion, Robert
Master Sergeant
Lafargue, Isadora
Spiegel, Edward F. Richard, Gabriel
Bardwell, Harold E. Vivian, Emil
Perry, Francis
Corporals
Sergeant First Class
Dolan, William
Walton, Francis E. Egglefield, George H.
Aaron, George Dornos, Valantine F.
Norman, William J. Jeffors, Jack V.
Schmitz, Paul E. Joralemon, Prescott H.
VandeWater, LeGrand Leiper, Alexander
Durand, Toofile C. Olmann, Joseph J.
Claude, John J. Pomorey, Randle
Fraudin, Jules P. Slote, William
Coachman, James H. Harry, Henry V.
Craswell, Alphius Johanson, Oscar E.
Reasor, Orian S. Lawrence, Frederick J.
Donaldson, William K. Webb, Frank W.
Horton, John J. Zimmerman, Edwin H.
Sergeant Rabideau, Frederick W.
Bouchor, Arthur Sifferlin, Ernest
Carlson, Carl A. Simistor, James T.
Clarke, Robert C. Craig, Joseph A.
Bourges, Fernand A. Chevrier, Fernand P
Paganini, Alfred
Private First Class
Cook, Ralph L. Cormier, L.H.
Kilpatrick, William Ayers, R.L.
Johnson, Ingolf M. Copeland, Hugh
Murphy, Maria R. DuFrasne, Francis A.
Durbin, Malcolm C. Grill, Jean
Durbin, Paul C. Hagen, Elvin C.
47
Elder, Walter C. Hagorty, Harry E.
Elliot, Carlisle B. Hollwedel, Henry W.
Farleigh, William Hargraves, Horace
Fraser, Gerald Harmon, Vincent T.
Garlick, Charles Hayes, Joseph R.
Gilligan, John L. Henry, Paul T.
Good, Michael Hollaman, Frederick T.
Leonard, Gustav W. James, George S.
McManamon, John J. Johner, Charles F.
Pranitic, George L. Johnson, Gerald C.
Schickel, William P. Zidder, Elmer J.
Starr, George H. Kelly, Henry
Wills, Halsey W. Lake, John W.
Wills, Walter H. Lamberton, James R.
Durbin, Malcolm C. McCollum, Myles
Durbin, Paul C. McDonnel, Eugene J.
Elder, Walter C. Maguire, Walter R.
Elliot, Carlisle B. Merkle, William J.
Privates
Miller, John J.
Abrams, William F. O’Flahorty, James E.
Achec, Fernand Grill, Jean
Addor, Henry Hagen, Elvin C.
Good, Michael Hagorty, Harry E.
Leonard, Gustav W. Hollwedel, Henry W.
Barker, Stanley M. Hargraves, Horace
Borgen, Abram S. Harmon, Vincent T.
Bishop, Frank S. Parnoll, Frod B.
Braine, Reginald P. Powell, Georgo M
Brooks, Merrel V. Rasmussen, Svend
Brooks, Reginald R. Rielly, Frank V.
Butler, Clyde H. Rogers, John H.
Cavanna, Paul Rubenstein, Ralph
Abrams, William F. Soagrist, Nicholas M.
Achec, Fernand Seals, Harold A.
Addor, Henry Stout, Russel M.
Schaffer, George H. Sweetman, Francis
Van Husen, Arthur Taylor, Edward G.W.
Foot, Elliot B. Tynan, John E.
Freckner, George V. Tulp, Herman J.
French, John J. Ungerland, Henry A.
Geddes, Robert H. Utterhaegon, Arthur
Glaser, William Wardlow, Charles A.
Chestor, John R. Warnock, Milton C.
48
Appendix 2
General Mitchell’s Battle Orders
Headquarters, Air Service, First Army,
American Expeditionary Forces.
September 11th, 1918
Battle Orders No. 1.
I. The enemy is losing ground, personnel and material at all points of the front on
which the allied armies are attacking. On the front of the first Army he is holding the line
Pont-sur-Seille -St. Mihiel- Fresnes-en-Woevre—Chatillo·sous·les·Cotes in his old
positions. His Air Service is estimated at 150 pursuits, 120 reconnaissance and 25 battle
air planes, which is being reinforced. The strength of his ground troops is estimated at
about seven divisions, with from three to five divisions in reserve. The strength and
morale of these divisions is reported low. There are signs that he intends to withdraw
from his first lines and make his main resistance at some point further to
the rear.
2. The First Army attacks on the whole front on 12 September, 1918. The hour of
the attack will be 5 H, 12 September, 1918. The 1st and 4th Corps will attack at H hour.
The 5th Corps will attack at H hour plus three hours. The Second French Colonial Corps
will attack as follows:
The attack west of the 4th Corps at H plus one hour.
The attack south of the 5th Corps at H plus four hours. The artillery bombardment
will commence as follows:
1st and 4th Corps H minus four hours. 5th Corps H minus four hours. The Second
Colonial Corps will attack at H minus four hours.
3. OUR AIR SERVICE WILL TAKE THE OFFENSIVE AT ALL POINTS WITH
THE OBJECT OF DESTROYING THE ENEMY 'S AIR SERVICE, ATTACKING HIS
TROOPS ON THE GROUND AND PROTECTING OUR OWN AIR AND GROUND
TROOPS.
4. (a) The Corps Sectors of reconnaissance are as announced in Annex 113, Field
Orders #9, Appendix #4, dated September 7, 1918. Particular attention is to be paid to
minute reconnaissance of the enemy lines to determine whether he has been reinforced or
has changed his dispositions. Important information involving immediate action obtained
by Corps Air Services will be sent by telephone, radio or courier airplane to the C.A.S.,
1st Army, or to the nearest brigade of the French Air Division.
(b) The 1st Army Observation Group (Reynolds) will execute the reconnaissance
and surveillance as ordered in the plan of reconnaissance, Annex #3, Field Orders #9,
Appendix #4, dated September 7th, 1918. Particular attention is to be paid to minute
reconnaissance of the enemy lines to determine whether he has been reinforced or has
changed his dispositions. Important information involving immediate action obtained by
our Air Services will be sent by telephone, radio or courier plane to the C.A.S., 1st Army,
49
or to the nearest brigade of the French Air Division. Three airplanes will be held ready to
execute any special reconnaissance ordered.
(c) The Army Artillery Group (Block) will execute the observation ordered
for the Artillery to which it is attached. Important information involving immediate
action obtained by Air Services will be sent by telephone, radio or courier airplane to the
C.A.S., 1st Army or to the nearest brigade of the French Air Division.
(d) The First Pursuit Wing, (Atkinson) will cover the front Pont-sur-Seille—
St. Mihiel, inclusive. An absolute barraget3 will be established against enemy aviation,
our own observation aviation will be protected and an attack against all balloons
exposing themselves on this front will be made early in the morning. Alter 9:00 A.M.,
one pursuit group loaded with bombs will be held in reserve to be used for the purpose of
attack of hostile troops or convoys on the ground, so as to be ready to leave the ground 15
minutes after the receipt of the order.
The First Bombardment Group will attack the hostile division and corps posts of
command and such enemy positions as present a suitable target.
The right flank of the 1st Pursuit Wing will be protected by the First Brigade
(French) Aerial Division and the Aerial defenses of the 8th French Army. Close liaison
will be maintained by the 1st Pursuit Wing (Atkinson) with both of these and with the
Army Corps so as to keep close track of the advance of the troops.
(e) The First Pursuit Group, (Hartney) will cover the front Chatillon sous les
Cotes—St. Mihiel, inclusive. A barrage will be maintained against hostile aviation,
observation aviation will be protected and hostile balloons will be attacked opposite the
front of the 5th Corps.
The left flank will be protected by the aerial defenses of the 2nd French Army
with which close liaison will be maintained. Close liaison will also be kept with the
Corps Air Services so as to keep track of the advance of the troops.
(f) The Army Night Bombing and Reconnaissance Wing, 14 (Major Villome)
will execute the night reconnaissance directed as provided for. Railroad Centers and
airdromes will be bombed systematically as provided for
in the plan of employment. Particular attention will be paid to the German Night
Bombing Airdromes.
(g) The French Air Division (Vaulgremant) will take the offensive against the
enemy's aviation and troops on the ground. The brigades will execute successive attacks,
passing over both sides of the St. Mihiel salient. On the right (east) of the area opposite
the front of the 1st and 4th Army Corps and on the left (west) opposite the front of the
Fifth Army Corps and on the left of the Second Colonial Corps the meeting point of these
two axes approximately the area Jonville-Hadenville-Chambley. The principle being to
operate along the axes indicated so as to take the enemy aviation in reverse and force it
towards our lines. Attacks will be made against the ground troops of the enemy when
occasion offers.
The bombardment aviation will attack the objects on the ground which show
themselves to be the most dangerous as operations develop.
Provision will be made for guarding the 1st Army's right flank against hostile air
attack. Close liaison will be maintained by radio and courier planes with the Corps Air
Services so as to insure the air division's cooperation in the attack.
50
5. The Equipment Section will hold itself ready to insure the supply and
movement of any units required.
6. The Army Dropping Ground for messages from airplanes is a point two
and one-half kilometers southeast of Ligny-en-Barrois. The Army Landing Field is
Maulan, six kilometers east of Ligny-en-Sarrois. The lst Day Bombardment Group will
provide a detail of four command airplanes to take station at Maulan, beginning at 7:00
A.M. September 12th.
7. Reports will reach the Chief of Air Service at Headquarters Air Service,
First Army, Ligny-en-Sarrois.
A liaison officer from each Corps Air Service, each Wing or independent group of
the Army Air Service, and the French Aerial Division will report at the Headquarters,
C.A.S., 1st Army, at 21.0QH each day to receive orders.
A liaison officer for the Night Bombardment Group, (Villome) will report at the
Headquarters, C.A.S., 1st Corps at 14-00H each day to receive orders.
William Mitchell.
Read and explained to assembled
Corps Air Service Commanders,
Group Commanders,
Wing Commanders,
Chief of Staff of the Air Division,
Staff of the C.A.S., 1st Army at 1530, September 11, 1918, without giving H
hour.
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