Word Usage and Thematic Content of Song Lyric Analyses: A Comparison of Adolescents Living in Community and Residential Settings

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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School

2008

Word Usage and Thematic Content of

Song Lyric Analyses: A Comparison of

Adolescents Living in Community and

Residential Environments

Thomas J. Petterson

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FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF MUSIC

WORD USAGE AND THEMATIC CONTENT OF SONG LYRIC ANALYSES:

A COMPARISON OF ADOLESCENTS LIVING IN COMMUNITY AND

RESIDENTIAL ENVIRONMENTS

By

THOMAS J. PETTERSON

A Thesis submitted to the

College of Music

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Music

Degree Awarded:

Summer Semester, 2008

The members of the Committee approve the Thesis of Thomas J. Petterson defended on

July 3, 2008.

___________________________

Alice-Ann Darrow

Professor Directing Thesis

___________________________

Jayne M. Standley

Committee Member

___________________________

Dianne Gregory

Committee Member

Approved:

_____________________________

Don Gibson, Dean, College of Music

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

ii

This thesis is dedicated to my grandmother Dolores,

for instilling in me a love of music and learning.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my deep gratitude to the many people who have helped me throughout

the process of writing this thesis paper. First of all, I would like to thank Sherronda Thomas and

Kacy Dennis of Boys & Girls Clubs of the Big Bend, as well as Shannon Martin and Rhonda

Johnson of Capital City Youth Services for their help in coordinating and implementing this

study at their respective organizations. Thanks to my fantastic content analysis team of Sabina

and Sean. Additional thanks go to Sabina for lending me many hours of her time, treating me to

numerous bits of thesis writing insight, and allowing me to record her lovely voice for this

project. Thank you to Tara, for helping me to keep life in perspective while writing this paper.

Many thanks go to my parents Karen and Kyle, for their overwhelming support, encouragement,

and wisdom, and to my brother Luke, for always being just a phone call away. Thank you to Dr.

Jayne Standley and Professor Dianne Gregory for introducing me to the world of music therapy

and for serving on my thesis committee. Finally, I would like to thank my advising professor,

Dr. Alice-Ann Darrow, for her endless enthusiasm, words of encouragement, and patient

guidance – all of which were greatly needed and much appreciated.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ vii

Abstract ................................................................................................................................. viii

I. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1

Purpose of Study ......................................................................................................... 4

II. Review of Literature ......................................................................................................... 6

At-Risk Youth ............................................................................................................. 6

Continuum of Residential Treatment Options for Adolescents .................................. 10

Creative Arts Therapies with At-Risk Youth .............................................................. 14

Music Therapy with At-Risk Youth ........................................................................... 17

Lyric Analysis Interventions ....................................................................................... 22

Songwriting Interventions ........................................................................................... 25

Rationale for Study ..................................................................................................... 30

Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 30

III. Method ............................................................................................................................ 31

Participants .................................................................................................................. 31

Setting ......................................................................................................................... 31

Materials and Equipment ............................................................................................ 32

Procedure .................................................................................................................... 33

Measurements ............................................................................................................. 34

IV. Results ............................................................................................................................. 37

Data Analyses for Research Question One ................................................................. 37

Data Analyses for Research Question Two ................................................................ 40

v

Data Analyses for Research Question Three .............................................................. 48

V. Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 49

APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 58

A. Song Lyrics for Lyric Analyses ............................................................................. 58

B. Lyric Analysis Interview Questions ....................................................................... 63

C. Participant-Composed Song Lyrics ........................................................................ 65

D. Institutional Review Board Approval and Consent Forms .................................... 70

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 75

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ................................................................................................ 92

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. LIWC Output Categories ....................................................................................... 35

Table 2. Content Analysis of Songs Written by Participants ............................................... 38

Table 3. LIWC Results for Songwriting Lyrics ................................................................... 39

Table 4. t-tests of LIWC Categories of Word Usage ........................................................... 40

Table 5. Question 1: What does the song say about life? Song: There’s Hope .................. 41

Table 6. Question 1: What does the song say about life? Song: Hey Mama ...................... 42

Table 7. Question 2: What feelings does the song bring to mind? ...................................... 43

Table 8. Question 3: What did the song make you think about? Song: There’s Hope ....... 44

Table 9. Question 3: What did the song make you think about? Song: Hey Mama ........... 44

Table 10. Question 4: Did you like the song? ...................................................................... 45

Table 11. Question 4: Why or why not? .............................................................................. 45

Table 12. Question 5: Select two lyric lines from the song which are most meaningful to

you. Song: There’s Hope ..................................................................................................... 46

Table 13. Question 5: Select two lyric lines from the song which are most meaningful to

you. Song: Hey Mama ......................................................................................................... 46

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viii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the thematic content and word use

patterns found in lyric analysis responses and songwriting lyrics of at-risk adolescents from

community and residential settings. Adolescents living in a voluntary, short-term residential

facility (n = 15) and adolescents living with family members in a typical home environment

(n = 15) served as participants. The study was conducted in three phases: a lyric analysis phase,

participant interview phase, and group songwriting phase. During the first two phases,

participants individually listened to two popular songs—one rap and one R&B, and then

responded orally to a series of questions regarding the lyrics of each song. Oral responses of

participants were audio recorded and transcribed. Content analysis was employed to code

interview responses and participant-composed song lyrics into thematic categories. Linguistic

Inquiry and Word Count, a software program that analyzes the content of written text, was also

employed to identify trends in word usage. Content analysis revealed a focus on themes within

the responses of the residential group that was not found in the community group. These themes

were: regret, loss of control, feeling restrained, and finding happiness regardless of wealth.

Conversely, song lyric lines of the community group contained more thematic content in the

categories of negative experiences and social/peer groups. Significant differences were also

found in the lyric analysis responses of the two at-risk groups. Word use of the community

group was significantly greater than the residential group in two categories—total pronouns and

impersonal pronouns. Similarities were found between the two at-risk groups in their use of

feeling words, their music preferences, and the thematic category of family in their lyric analyses

and songwriting lyrics. Data found in this study align with typical therapeutic objectives of

adolescents receiving residential and non-residential treatment. This alignment indicates that

lyric analysis and songwriting interventions may be effective methods for providing therapy to

at-risk youth. Additionally, findings of this study suggest that adolescents are willing to disclose

information and engage in dialogue related to therapeutic issues within the context of lyric

analyses and songwriting. These music therapy interventions, therefore, appear to be viable and

effective therapeutic strategies for use with at-risk adolescent populations.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Youth in the United States make up a vital portion of our country’s population, and are an

integral asset in determining the future success of our nation. The U.S. Census Bureau estimated

that in 2007 there were nearly 74 million children under the age of 18 residing in the United

States; thus, comprising 24.5% of our nation’s total estimated population (U.S. Census Bureau,

Population Division, 2008). The U.S. Census Bureau has also estimated that the number of

individuals under the age of 18 in our nation will steadily increase throughout the first half of the

century, culminating in a 36% total increase from 2000 to 2050 (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006).

The importance of investing in and maintaining the health and well-being of our nation’s youth

becomes evident upon analysis of these data. Adolescents in the U.S. currently face a host of

challenges that may prevent them from maturing into healthy, responsible adults. As the

adolescent population in the U.S. increases, so too does our nation’s responsibility to ensure the

success of these young people.

At-Risk Youth

Certain characteristics and situations tend to place adolescents at risk for future problem

conditions. Individuals who experience an accumulation of these risk factors face a greater

probability of negative behavioral outcomes and encountering difficulties later in life (Taylor,

Barry, & Walls, 1997). Conversely, protective factors that offset the effects of risk factors and

assist individuals in avoiding these negative outcomes may also be present in the lives of

adolescents. Risk factors affecting youth emerge within broad environmental conditions, family,

school, or neighborhood conditions, and individually, through psychosocial and biological

characteristics. Thus, adolescents whose lives are characterized by a supportive family and

community, positive parental and peer relationships, and ample opportunities for education,

employment, growth and achievement are at minimal risk for encountering problems.

Unfortunately, many adolescents in our nation are faced with poverty, discrimination,

unsupportive families, negative peer influences, and a lack of opportunities – all of which place

them at imminent risk of negative outcomes. (Fraser, 1997; McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter,

& McWhirter, 1993)

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The literature has identified a number of negative behavioral outcomes that typically

manifest within adolescents whose lives and environments are characterized by the

aforementioned risk factors. These outcomes include juvenile delinquency, school failure or

dropout, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior, and suicide (Dryfoos, 1990; McWhirter et al.,

1993). Although recent evidence has indicated a mild decrease among some of these behaviors

in adolescents, such high-risk behaviors are still characteristic of large segments of our nation’s

youth. Statistics from the past decade shed light on the prevalence of these behaviors. Law

enforcement agencies recorded 2.2 million juvenile arrests in 2003, 68% of which involved

crimes committed by youth ages 16 to 17 (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006). Nearly one third of our

nation’s students fail to complete high school within four years, and approximately 500,000

students drop out of school altogether each year (Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morison, 2006;

Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, 2003). Youth self-reports have

indicated that 43% of high school students consume alcohol frequently and nearly 10% of youth

ages 12 to 17 use illegal drugs (National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Center, 2001). In

2005, 34% of high school students were currently sexually active, 17% reported having seriously

contemplated suicide in the past year, and 8.4% had previously attempted suicide (Centers for

Disease Control and Prevention, 2006).

Continuum of Residential Treatment Options for Adolescents

Interventions for adolescents at risk may be viewed as a form of treatment and

preventative care. Although many adolescents already exhibit high-risk behaviors before being

exposed to any sort of formal treatment, more severe consequences can be anticipated in the

absence of sufficient intervention. Researchers estimated that in 1997, 1 in 50 children under the

age of 18 and 1 in 30 adolescents ages 13 to 17 were admitted to inpatient, outpatient, or

residential care. Seventy-three percent of these youth received outpatient care, 22% received

inpatient care, and 5% received residential care. Adolescents accounted for three fourths of the

individuals who received residential care (Pottick, et al., 2002). Many guidelines are used in

order to determine the most appropriate setting for intervention to take place. The most

frequently mentioned principle is that of least restrictive environment; identifying a treatment

setting which is least disruptive to the individual’s natural environment, yet still efficiently

addresses the individual’s needs (Lyman, Prentice-Dunn, Wilson, & Taylor, 1989). In surveying

the treatment options available to adolescents, a continuum becomes apparent. At the least

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restrictive end of this continuum are nonresidential treatments, including outpatient, home- and

school-based therapies. At the most restrictive end of the continuum are inpatient hospitalization

and institutional treatment. Information on evidence-based practices is essential to providing

optimal service delivery and treatment for adolescents.

Creative Arts Therapies with At-Risk Youth

According to the National Coalition of Creative Arts Therapies Associations (2008), art

therapy, dance/movement therapy, drama therapy, music therapy, poetry therapy, and

psychodrama all employ arts modalities and creative processes in the context of therapeutic

intervention. The creative arts take advantage of familiar and culturally relevant media, resulting

in a uniquely accessible and appealing form of intervention for adolescents. Participation in and

expression through the arts is socially acceptable and intrinsically gratifying for most youth;

thus, providing opportunities to address therapeutic issues which are often met with resistance or

disinterest (Camilleri, 2007). As the body of research literature supporting the use of these

therapeutic modalities continues to grow, the creative arts have increasingly been utilized as a

component of prevention and treatment programs for adolescents (Rapp-Paglicci, Ersing, &

Rowe, 2006).

Music Therapy with At-Risk Youth

Music has been used extensively as a therapeutic modality to address the challenges

facing at-risk adolescents. Music therapists interact with adolescents at many points along the

continuum of treatment settings discussed above, including community programs (Ragland &

Apprey, 1974), school settings (Wasserman, 1993), foster and group care homes (Layman,

Hussey, & Laing, 2002), residential treatment centers (Steele, 1975), acute and chronic inpatient

treatment facilities (Brooks, 1989), and offender treatment programs (Baker & Homan, 2007;

Gardstrom, 1987). Therapeutic goals addressed in music therapy are diverse and usually

developed on an individual level, but remain characteristically consistent with the treatment

goals of the settings in which the therapy is being employed.

Music Therapy Interventions: Lyric Analysis and Songwriting

An individual’s music of choice tends to carry a special level of significance in the lives

of adolescents. Roe (1987) noted that “a great deal of adolescent discourse centers around the

language and terminology of [popular music]; and that music provides the core values of

numerous adolescent subcultures” (p. 215). Songs are a medium through which adolescents

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communicate regularly, articulating values and beliefs with comfort and ease. Songwriting and

lyric analysis are two music therapy techniques which take advantage of the communicative

aspect of songs and the appeal of preferred music.

Lyric analysis involves the careful selection of appropriate, client-preferred songs by a

music therapist, or the use of songs selected by clients. Clients listen to and discuss songs in

order to gain insight into therapeutic issues. As choice of song is key to a successful lyric

analysis activity, considerable effort has been put forth by music therapists in recent years to

identify appropriate songs from within current genres of music. Unfortunately, such genres often

appear to be rife with explicit language, violence, and other themes of dubious moral value. A

number of clinicians have demonstrated methods of overcoming this challenge, either by

unearthing songs with positive themes in each genre or by directly addressing negative themes

found in the lyrics as part of the intervention. Thus, songs from rock, heavy metal and hip-hop

music genres have been successfully incorporated into lyric analysis interventions with

adolescents (Kobin & Tyson, 2006; Mark, 1986; Wyatt, 2002).

Songwriting is an exceptionally adaptable form of therapeutic intervention.

Consequently, music therapists implement songwriting activities with clients spanning a wide

range of ages and functioning abilities (Edgerton, 1990; Edwards, 1998; Freed, 1987; Glassman,

1991; Mayers, 1995; Silber & Hes, 1995). Within the songwriting process, clients are allowed as

much control as possible, while the music therapist provides a lyrical and musical framework to

the extent necessary for a successful experience. Wigram and Baker (2005) emphasize that

songwriting operates therapeutically as both a process and a product. The creation of a song is a

process in which a client’s experiences, thoughts, and feelings are organized and expressed.

Upon completion of the song, the client has a product with which to reflect upon, take pride in,

and share with others. Songwriting provides an opportunity for addressing therapeutic issues

creatively in a manner appealing to adolescents.

Purpose of Study

Investigating the thematic content of client-composed songs has provided considerable

insight into the strengths, perceptions, and experiences of populations served by music therapists

(Baker, Kennelly, & Tamplin, 2005; O’Callaghan, 1996; Robb & Ebberts, 2003b). However, no

studies could be found which analyzed the thematic content or word usage of songs written by

at-risk adolescents. Nor could studies be found in the music therapy literature that have

4

investigated the thematic content or word usage within lyric analysis responses of adolescent

populations. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to examine and compare the thematic

content of lyric analysis responses and songwriting lyrics of at-risk adolescents from community

and residential settings.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

At-Risk Youth

Definition of At-Risk. Literature from a variety of disciplines has exhibited a lack of

agreement regarding the definition of the term ‘at-risk’ when speaking about children and

adolescents. This term has taken on many different meanings, depending on the context and

field of study within which it is being applied. In a school setting, ‘at-risk’ may be used to

characterize a student in danger of performing poorly or dropping out (Duerksen & Darrow,

1991; Taylor et al., 1997). In reference to delinquency, ‘at-risk’ can mean being in danger of

offending as a juvenile or re-offending as an adult (Farrington & Welsh, 2007). Psychologists,

social workers, and counselors often refer to adolescents suffering from emotional or adjustment

issues as being at risk (McWhirter et al., 1993).

McWhirter et al. (1993) define at-risk youth as individuals who are in danger of negative

future events as the result of a set of cause and effect dynamics in place in their lives. In

example, youth who use tobacco are at risk for alcohol use, youth who use alcohol are at risk for

illicit drug use, and youth who use illicit drugs are consequently at risk for drug abuse. Risk

factors make it more likely that the negative future events will occur. A risk factor is “any

influence that increases the probability of onset, digression to a more serious state, or the

maintenance of a problem condition” (Fraser, 1997, p. 3). Similarly, certain behaviors, attitudes

or deficiencies exhibited by adolescent individuals may be indicators of future problem

behaviors. At-risk status is not viewed as a diagnostic category, but rather as a sequence of steps

along a continuum. If multiple risk factors are present in a youth’s life, this may be an indicator

that the individual is at high risk for certain negative future outcomes. Alternatively, if a youth’s

circumstances are devoid of risk factors, the individual may be considered at minimal risk for

these same future outcomes (Fraser, 1997; McWhirter et al., 1993). The broad, inclusive use of

the term ‘at-risk’ described above will be employed for the purposes of this study.

Domains of Risk Predictors. Many serious, widespread environmental risk factors

threaten our nation’s youth, including low socioeconomic status, poverty, and racial and ethnic

discrimination (McWhirter et al., 1993). Within the context of these broad environmental

factors, youth risk prevention efforts typically target one or more of the following domains of

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youth development: family, school, peer groups, and community. These domains are not

isolated from each other. In example, peer groups can be found within a school setting as well as

in the larger community (Delgado, 2002). Also, healthy family attachment is associated with

low levels of adolescent risk taking behaviors. However, these same risk taking behaviors

generally become elevated with the inclusion of low school involvement and high peer group

involvement, irrespective of family attachment (Wade & Brannigan, 1998). Thus, these domains

appear to be thoroughly interconnected with one another and are most accurately viewed as an

interweaving network of risk factors, rather than discrete, solitary units.

Family. The importance of the family in youth-development cannot be overstated. The

family unit has the potential to promote youth resiliency and serve as a protective factor against

adolescent risk behaviors. Even if youth are raised in high risk environments, they are likely to

experience positive outcomes if their lives are personified by caring and ongoing relationships

with parents and high parental expectations (Delgado, 2002). Unfortunately, negative family

interactions may place youth at risk for additional problems in their future. Structural (i.e.

single-parent or two-parent families) and contextual (i.e. parental supervision, parent-child

connectedness) familial characteristics can both be predictors of adolescent risk behaviors, such

as delinquency, substance use and sexual activity.

Farrington and Welsh (2007) state that having criminal or antisocial parents is the

strongest familial predictor of future offending, followed by poor parental supervision, parental

conflict, disrupted families, and large family size. Parent-child relationships which lack

closeness, warmth and affection also increase the risk of adolescent delinquency (Smith & Stern,

1997). Additionally, Gerard and Buehler (1999) reported that overt interparental conflict and

poor parenting were two significant risk predictors of youth problem behaviors, and had a

cumulative effect on such behaviors. Familial factors have similar effects on adolescent

substance use. The accumulation of family stressors and strain has been identified as a predictor

of adolescent cigarette, alcohol and drug use (McCubbin, Needle, & Wilson, 1985). Studies

have also indicated that adolescents living in single-parent, stepparent, or father-custody families

are at increased risk of drug use (Hoffmann, 2002; Hoffmann & Johnson, 1998). Besides

substance use, lack of parent-child connectedness and low or overly intrusive parental

supervision have all been related to higher adolescent pregnancy risk (Miller, 2002).

7

Characteristics of the family are also intertwined with adolescent peer relations. In 1994,

Curtner-Smith and MacKinnon-Lewis discovered that adolescents were more susceptible to

antisocial peer pressure if they perceived that their fathers monitored them infrequently and

practiced inappropriate discipline, and if their mothers reported an authoritarian style of

parenting. Quality of family interaction can also affect adolescent peer relationships. Cui,

Conger, Bryant and Elder (2002) found that supportive parental behavior toward adolescent

children promoted supportive behaviors and increased intimacy of adolescents toward siblings

and friends, whereas hostile parental behaviors towards adolescents resulted in adolescent

hostility towards siblings and peers.

Peer Groups. Peer groups are an influential force in the lives of adolescents. This is

understandably so, as one estimate has stated that the average adolescent spends approximately

twice as much time with peers as with his or her parents (Delgado, 2002). Although peer groups

do not implicitly influence youth in a negative manner, association with peers exhibiting certain

characteristics does serve as a predictor of future risk behaviors in adolescents. Tenth-graders

were more likely to engage in drug use, alcohol consumption, and cigarette smoking if a high

percentage of school-based peers participated in these activities (Gaviria & Raphael, 2001).

Additionally, youth were more at risk of dropping out of high school if school-based peers had a

high dropout rate (Cairns, Cairns, & Neckerman, 1989; Gaviria & Raphael, 2001). Studies have

also documented the effects of antisocial peer groups on youth violence. Kaufmann, Wyman,

Forbes-Jones, and Barry (2007) determined that antisocial peer relations (individuals who

engaged in frequent drug and alcohol use or other illegal acts) were a predictor of increased

aggressive, disruptive conduct and acts of delinquency among urban adolescents ages 13 to 15.

In a study with African-American urban adolescents, Foney and Cunningham (2002) found that

negative peer influences were associated with increased antisocial fighting behaviors.

Additionally, adolescents who become affiliated with a deviant peer group are at an increased

risk of injury, incarceration and death (Lacourse et al., 2006).

School. The level of success youth experience within the school environment has many

far-reaching implications in other areas of youth development. School dropout is associated with

many negative individual, social, and economic outcomes. Students who drop out of high school

have fewer employment options, higher unemployment rates, and lower average income than

high school graduates (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2007; Rumberger, 1987). Students who

8

drop out are also at increased risk of having health problems, abusing substances, engaging in

criminal activities, and depending on government programs for assistance (Guagliardo, Huang,

Hicks, & D’Angelo, 1998; Rumberger, 1995).

As the negative implications of school dropout are so severe, researchers have expended

extensive resources investigating factors which place youth at risk for dropping out. Grade

retention and poor academic performance, including academic failure, are consistently cited as

two of the strongest predictors of school dropout (Cairns et al., 1989; Dryfoos, 1990; Needham,

Crosnoe, & Muller, 2004). Roderick (1994) argues that grade retention causes students to be

overage for their grade level, resulting in disengagement from school. School quality can also be

a determinant of school dropout. Higher dropout rates have been found in schools that are

segregated, contain low teacher-pupil ratios, and emphasize tracking and testing (Dryfoos, 1990).

Pittman and Haughwout (1987) found that increased school size is linked to increased dropout

rates because of school climate; namely, student participation decreases and the severity of

problem environments increases when school size increases. A variety of other factors

contribute to school dropout as well. Stroup and Robins (1972) conducted a study among black

male students and concluded that truancy, early drinking activity, low parental social status, and

attending a high number of elementary schools were all early indicators of high school drop out.

The mental and physical health of students affects school performance as well.

Adolescents who reported experiencing physical health problems and emotional distress

exhibited increased absenteeism, difficulties with homework, and a disconnect with adults in the

school system. Subsequently, these three factors were closely associated with academic failure

of one or more classes (Needham et al., 2004). School commitment, another area of study, may

predict acts of school-based delinquency. Crime and misconduct in school and lack of school

attendance have all been associated with a low sense of commitment in adolescents (Jenkins,

1995).

Community. Along with schools, certain characteristics of communities serve as

predictors of adolescent risk behaviors. In 1969, Shaw and McKay found that communities

typified by disorganized neighborhoods, physical deterioration, and high residential mobility also

contained the highest rates of juvenile delinquency (based on residence of offenders). Type of

housing has also been identified as a predicator for delinquency. Public housing and private

renting have been associated with high juvenile offender rates, whereas low offender rates have

9

been found in areas of owner-occupied housing (Farrington & Welsh, 2007). Besides

delinquency, adolescents residing within communities suffering from poor economic conditions,

high rates of joblessness among men, and disorganization are at an increased risk of drug use

(Brook & Brook, 1996; Hoffmann, 2002). However, effects of community on antisocial

behaviors of youth have often been attributed to the indirect effects that neighborhoods have on

families. Additionally, the question has been raised as to whether community characteristics

cause antisocial behaviors in youth, or if families characteristic of antisocial behaviors simply

tend to live in such neighborhoods (Farrington & Welsh, 2007).

Confronting the sheer number of risk factors which face many of our nation’s youth can

be a daunting task. Nonetheless, in the absence of intervention, at-risk youth – and by extension,

our society – are in danger of numerous future difficulties. A spectrum of residential and non-

residential treatment settings are available to assist adolescents with current problems and

prevent further negative outcomes from becoming a reality.

Continuum of Residential Treatment Options for Adolescents

Treatment care for youth is frequently categorized on a continuum of restrictiveness.

This classification is based on the principle of least restrictive environment. In their system of

care philosophy, Stroul and Friedman (1996) state that services should be provided to youth in

“the least restrictive, most normative environment that is clinically appropriate” (p. 8).

Similarly, Lyman and Barry (2006) add that treatment should be provided in a setting that is

“least disruptive of the child’s natural environment while still providing effective intervention”

(p. 261).

Regardless of the field’s consensus to abide by the least restrictive environment principle,

considerable debate exists over which treatment options are the most effective, appropriate, and

cost-efficient for specific youth problems or collections of problems. Additionally, levels of

restrictiveness within types of residential settings can be convoluted and not as clear cut as

indicated. Bates, English, and Kouidou-Giles (1997) point out that “there are often significant

differences in the level of restrictiveness and treatment intensity both between and within points

on the continuum” (p. 9). Thus, the following list of treatment options contains a simplified set

of characteristics outlining the complex and variable qualities of available treatment programs,

based on a continuum of intensity of treatment and restrictiveness of environment.

10

Outpatient Treatment. Outpatient treatment is the most prevalent form of treatment

among children and adolescents (Burns, Hoagwood, & Mrazek, 1999; Tuma, 1989). According

to one study, 70% of mental health admissions of youth ages 10 to 18 were in outpatient

treatment (Burns, 1991). Outpatient treatment varies widely in theory and practice. Treatment

often includes play therapy, psychotherapy, behavior therapy, and family therapy (Lyman &

Barry, 2006). Therapy is offered in the context of individual, family, or group sessions, usually

not exceeding two to three hours per week. Length of treatment ranges from a few sessions to

over a year (Burns et al., 1999; Lyman & Barry, 2006).

Recently, researchers have conducted studies of intensive outpatient therapy programs,

focusing on interventions in the home or at school. These studies have had promising results,

and consequently, home- and school-based outpatient therapy has been proposed as a viable

alternative to residential treatment. Intensive family preservation services (Feldman, 1991),

multisystemic therapy (Saldana & Henggeler, 2006), and Lochman’s Coping Power program

(Lochman, Powell, Jackson, & Czopp, 2006) are three such approaches that have proven

effective as forms of youth intervention. Proponents of these therapies argue that such treatment

is less expensive and preserves the natural environment of the youth more accurately than

residential treatment.

Day Treatment. Day treatment, or partial hospitalization, is characterized by the

provision of mental health services at a treatment center during the day, and return of the youth

to his or her home at night. Day treatment is specialized and intensive; less restrictive than

inpatient care, but more so than outpatient treatment. Frequently cited benefits of day treatment

for youth include extended treatment contact, the continued involvement with family and peers

outside of treatment, and academic and behavioral improvements (Burns et al., 1999; Lyman &

Barry, 2006). Day treatment centers often function as schools with therapeutic components in

the curriculum. Others offer comprehensive treatment services, providing education, counseling

(individual, group, or family), pharmacological treatment, and social support (Farley, 1991;

Tuma, 1989). A summary of research by Burns, Hoagwood, and Maultsby (1998) indicated that

day treatment can be an effective intervention, but involvement of the family is critical to

success.

Treatment (Therapeutic) Foster Care. Therapeutic foster care utilizes specially trained

foster parents in private houses to produce a therapeutic environment within the context of a

11

family home (Burns et al., 1999). This home-like setting recreates the youth’s natural

environment more precisely than other 24 hour residential facilities, and therefore is considered

the least disruptive residential setting. Research suggests that youth who receive therapeutic

foster care are highly successful in being discharged to less restrictive setting (Bates et al., 1997;

Burns et al., 1999; Rosen, 1998). One analysis of the research found that 62 to 89% of youth are

discharged in this fashion (Burns et al., 1998). Research has also indicated positive behavioral

and emotional outcomes of participation in therapeutic foster care, including sustainable

improvements in adjustment, self-esteem, sense of identity, and aggressive behavior.

Additionally, therapeutic foster care is less costly than other forms of residential treatment

(Burns et al., 1999; Rosen, 1998). Therapeutic foster care also appears to be beneficial among

juvenile delinquents. Studies have indicated that adolescent males who participated in

multidimensional treatment foster care committed significantly fewer criminal and delinquent

acts, returned to live at home more frequently, and had fewer associations with delinquent peers

than adolescent males who participated in group care (Chamberlain & Reid, 1998; Leve &

Chamberlain, 2005).

Youth Crisis Shelters. Youth crisis shelters are short-term facilities serving youth

populations for a wide variety of purposes. Youth crisis shelters function to protect and help

youth that have been removed from harmful environments (as in cases of abuse or neglect), serve

as a transitional home between foster or group care placements (Hurley, Ingram, Czyz, Juliano,

& Wilson, 2006), provide shelter for runaway youth (Thompson & Pillai, 2006), support and aid

parents or other caregivers through respite care (Lyman & Barry, 2006), and rehabilitate street

youth (Karabanow & Clement, 2004). Depending on the purpose of a particular shelter, length

of stay can vary. Some facilities restrict length of stay to a matter of hours, days or weeks,

whereas others will provide services for months if necessary (Hurley et al., 2006; Pollio,

Thompson, Tobias, Reid, & Spitznagel, 2006). In addition to supplying the basic needs of food,

shelter, and safety, most youth crisis shelters provide other assistance, such as medical treatment,

counseling (for youth and families), and skill-building services (Karabanow & Clement, 2004).

A common, often required, objective for many shelters is the reunification of runaway youth and

their parents. In these scenarios, after-care services to support adolescents and their parents are

considered integral to prevent potential victimization of the youth and achieve successful

reintegration into the home environment (Thompson, Zittel-Palamara, & Maccio, 2004).

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Residential Treatment Centers. Reviewing literature on residential treatment centers

(RTCs) is difficult, resulting from a lack of consensus on characteristics which define residential

treatment (Frensch & Cameron, 2002). Some of the most consistent descriptors of an RTC are

summarized by Hair (2005): “Residential treatment centers are out-of-home 24 hour facilities

that offer mental health treatment using multi-disciplinary teams that often make therapeutic use

of the daily living milieu, but are less restrictive than inpatient psychiatric units” (p. 552).

Placement in an RTC is typically reserved for youth with serious emotional and behavioral

issues. A well-developed, formal treatment program is usually in place and implemented by

trained staff and licensed mental health professionals. Additionally, RTCs tend to bear less

resemblance to the youth’s natural environment than foster and group homes (Lyman & Barry,

2006). However, in some cases, RTCs can be indistinguishable from other types of residential

settings. They may range from small, functional units serving groups of 8 to 20 adolescents, to

institutional programs serving over 100 youth (Frensch & Cameron, 2002; Lyman & Barry,

2006). Also, in practice, RTCs are often less restrictive and intensive than some foster homes or

more so than certain inpatient psychiatric facilities (Bates et al., 1997).

Debate exists over whether or not it is beneficial to remove a youth from his or her family

and home environment for treatment. Behavior of youth is context-dependent. Positive

outcomes achieved in a setting highly unlike that of a youth’s original environment often

dissipate quickly upon returning to this environment, if transferring at all (Barker, 1988; Frensch

& Cameron, 2002). Another criticism of RTCs is that the environment of many facilities leads to

youth adopting deviant and antisocial behaviors learned from other youth receiving treatment

(Burns et al., 1999). Nonetheless, proponents of this treatment setting argue that RTCs can

promote positive development in adolescents with severe emotional and behavioral problems.

Hair (2005) states that RTCs “can provide a consistent nurturing environment with predictable,

consistent expectations that are designed to help shape desirable behaviors and emotional

responses” (p. 555).

Little evidence regarding long-term outcomes of residential care is present in the

literature. However, studies documenting short-term outcomes are plentiful. Reviews of

residential treatment outcome studies by Knorth, Harder, Zandberg, and Kendrick (2008) and

Hair (2005) have indicated that the best short-term outcomes were produced by residential

programs that were multi-modal, holistic, and ecological in approach, applied behavioral therapy

13

methods, and emphasized family involvement. Larzelere et al. (2001) found that adolescents

made significant positive gains in behavioral outcomes ten months after being discharged from a

residential program that utilized a teaching family model and emphasized extensive services and

support after discharge. Hair (2005) also emphasized that success after discharge was reliant on

family involvement, stability of the post-discharge environment, and the availability of aftercare

support.

Inpatient Hospitalization. The most restrictive setting in the continuum of residential

treatment services for youth is inpatient hospitalization. This form of treatment is characterized

by extremely regimented daily living, the provision of total care in a hospital setting, and little

resemblance to the youth’s natural environment (Tuma, 1989). Although other therapies are

available, the primary therapeutic modalities regularly consist of pharmacological treatment and

other biological interventions (Lyman & Barry, 2006).

In the past two decades, average length of stay for youth at inpatient hospitals has

decreased from a year or more to less than a month. The managed care system, which provides

access to an array of less restrictive residential settings and other aftercare services, has

accounted for much of this change. As a result, current inpatient hospitalization tends to

resemble crisis-stabilization more than full-fledged residential treatment (Lyman & Barry, 2006).

One treatment modality whose use has been documented at all points of this continuum is that of

the creative arts therapies.

Creative Arts Therapies with At-Risk Youth

In the past three decades, a consistent body of literature has documented the use of the

creative arts therapies in rehabilitative, school, community, and therapeutic settings. Gibson

(1980) states that “the creative arts therapies depend upon the planned and deliberate utilization

of the artistic experience as a creative process” (p. 5). According to the National Coalition of

Creative Arts Therapies Associations (2008), the creative arts therapies are used “to foster

health, communication, and expression; promote the integration of physical, emotional,

cognitive, and social functioning; enhance self-awareness; and facilitate change” (¶ 1). Use of

the creative arts is appropriate for use with adolescent populations.

Tyson and Baffour (2004) assert that a strengths-based approach – in which capabilities

of clients are emphasized, may be more effective in therapy with adolescents than an approach

focusing on an individual’s pathology and personal deficits. The same authors conducted a study

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in which youth in acute psychiatric care reported that they frequently coped with crises through

use of the creative arts, including listening to music, writing, creating artwork, and singing or

playing instruments (2004). Focusing on creative strengths in therapy may empower adolescents

and increase their sense of self-worth and value (Tyson & Baffour, 2004; Wengrower, 2001).

Other authors cite additional reasons the creative arts may be successful with at-risk

youth. Adolescents are often not willing or capable to express themselves verbally; thus, through

non-verbal interventions, the creative arts therapies may engage adolescent individuals in a more

direct and immediate manner than verbal therapies (Gibson, 1980). Wengrower (2001) contends

that therapy based on the arts is less stigmatizing to adolescents than traditional verbal therapy,

as expression through art has value to adolescents and is considered socially acceptable among

their peers. From a cultural perspective, Henderson and Gladding (1998) argue that the creative

arts have the potential to transcend cultural boundaries, promote mental health, and build rapport

between clients and therapists of differing cultural backgrounds.

In order to reflect the many differing interests of adolescent individuals, Rapp-Paglicci

et al. (2006) emphasize that a diversity of prevention and intervention programs should be

available to address risk behaviors of adolescents. Correspondingly, the body of literature

describes many creative arts programs targeting at-risk youth. Dutton (2001) identified an array

of youth development programs that have used the creative arts in school and community

environments to yield positive results among adolescents. Camilleri and Jackson (2005) assert

that creative arts performing groups may help youth build commitment, responsibility, and a

sense of community. Additionally, Long and Soble (1999) used an arts-based project to promote

violence prevention among sixth-grade students. Participants used creative arts activities to

express their attitudes, thoughts and feelings on violence, develop problem-solving strategies,

and actively communicate with one another.

The National Coalition of Creative Arts Therapies Associations identifies six core

creative arts therapies: art therapy, dance/movement therapy, drama therapy, psychodrama,

music therapy, and poetry therapy. The use of each of these treatment modalities has been used

to address the needs of at-risk adolescents. Art therapists employ various visual media to aid

clients in expressing themselves and in finding solutions to problems and issues (Worrall &

Jerry, 2007). The use of art therapy in therapeutic and rehabilitative settings has been

extensively documented with adolescents who have suicidal tendencies (Conger, 1988; Harnden,

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Rosales & Greenfield, 2004; Walsh, 1993), psychiatric diagnoses (Fliegel, 2000), eating

disorders (Crowl, 1980; Wolf, Willmuth, & Watkins, 1986), substance abuse issues (Cox &

Price, 1990), emotional disturbances (Moon, 1999), a history of sexual abuse (Backos & Pagon,

1999; Carozza & Heirsteiner, 1982), and who have committed sexual offenses (Gerber, 1994).

Art therapy has also been successfully implemented in community and school settings (Dorr,

2007; McGuire, 2007; Odell, 2007; Tibbets & Stone, 1990). McGuire (2007) integrated art

therapy into a community program with inner-city at-risk adolescents to address issues of

violence, create a sense of empowerment within individuals, and build trust among students and

their families. Dorr (2007) used creative art-making and collaborative group processes to

improve conflict resolution skills, anger management and self-esteem in adolescents enrolled in a

school-suspension program.

Programs serving adolescents often apply dance and movement interventions as well.

Ritter and Low (1996) surveyed 23 studies as part of a meta-analysis to identify the effects of

dance/movement therapy. Results indicated that dance/movement interventions were most

effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety and treating adolescent and adult groups. Dance and

movement activities were used by Cohen and Walco (1999) to holistically address the

psychosocial needs of adolescents with cancer. In a classroom setting, Farber (2001) created a

dance/movement curriculum designed to help adolescents develop an awareness of physical,

social, and cultural factors that may shape personal identity. Farr (1997) argues that many

elements in the theory of dance/movement therapy parallel values of African-American youth

culture, including an “inclination toward a physical and aesthetic expression of feeling” (p. 187).

As a result, Farr states that dance/movement interventions may be effective in achieving certain

outcomes among African-American at-risk youth, such as the communication of affect and

sensation, development of socially adaptive behaviors, and an increased sense of competence.

Drama therapists use a different facet of the arts, creative drama, with youth through

interventions including role-playing, theatrical performances, and discussion. Drama therapy

may help adolescents to meet social outcomes such as adjusting to a new social environment

(Rousseau et al., 2007), building healthy relationships (Dayton, 2007), and learning to cooperate

and resolve conflicts appropriately with peers (Novy, 2003). Snow, D’Amico, and Tanguay

(2003) discussed using theatrical performance with adolescents to meet emotional outcomes,

including improved self-confidence and self-image. Within individual therapy, creative drama

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techniques have been used to relieve problematic symptoms and promote personal growth

(Dunne, 1988; Goodrich & Goodrich, 1986). Psychoeducational drama has been used

successfully with individuals attending middle- and high-school to increase awareness of

substance abuse, sexual harassment, and other at-risk behaviors (Kruczek & Zagelbaum, 2004;

Harding & Safer, 1996).

Psychodrama – a form of group psychotherapy that uses creative drama to enact scenes

approximate and relevant to an individual’s life, has also been employed effectively with

adolescents (Dayton, 2007). Psychodrama has been practiced within a full range of educational

and mental health settings (Kipper & Hundal, 2003). Kipper and Ritchie (2003) conducted a

meta-analysis of 25 experimental studies utilizing psychodrama. Their study indicated a large

improvement effect size, comparable to or greater than that of traditional group psychotherapy.

Unlike drama therapy, the fields of poetry therapy and bibliotherapy focus on the written

word as a therapeutic tool (Mazza, 1999). Writing poetry in a therapeutic setting has helped

adolescents to express thoughts and feelings, identify personal strengths and build self-esteem

(Alexander, 1990; Bowman & Halfacre, 1994). Bibliotherapeutic interventions have been used

to empower adolescents and help them develop coping skills and problem solving strategies.

Through reading and discussing relevant and culturally-appropriate literature, adolescents may

gain insight into their problems and develop coping strategies and solutions related to these

problems (Pardeck, 1994). Holman (1996) used ethnically-appropriate literature with a minority

adolescent in therapy. He states that the literature was a source of empowerment for the

adolescent and helped him to establish a positive sense of identity. Whereas poetry therapy

makes use of the written or spoken word to channel therapeutic change, music therapy primarily

employs music to promote positive therapeutic outcomes.

Music Therapy with At-Risk Youth

In a 2003 study surveying over two-thousand 8- to 18-year-olds, researchers determined

that youth in the U.S. spent an average of 1 hour and 44 minutes listening to music each day,

while older teens spent close to two and a half hours doing so. Additionally, the nature of how

music is accessed by youth has expanded in recent years. Almost two thirds of young people

reportedly own a portable CD or tape player, 18% own an MP3 player, and 48% listen to internet

radio (Rideout, Roberts, & Foehr, 2005). According to Roe (1987), “the whole adolescent

milieu is penetrated at many levels by an active interest in music” (p. 215). Furthermore, music

17

has a powerful presence within the social milieu of youth (Beckley & Chalfant, 1977). Music

then, seems to be a logical medium for therapeutic intervention.

In working with adolescents, music therapists have pursued treatment outcomes such as

building self-esteem, developing pro-social skills, encouraging healthy communication and self-

expression, promoting formation of identity, and developing skills for problem solving and

coping. Interventions frequently employed by music therapists to address these goals include

group singing, songwriting, lyric analysis, improvisation, music games, dance and movement to

music, creating musical stories, learning instrumental or rhythmic compositions, and relaxation

set to music (Brooks, 1989; Camilleri, 2000; Wyatt, 2002).

The Power of Music Preference. Camilleri (2000) mentions that “music therapy

capitalizes on the familiarity and accessibility of music to help people recover, cope, learn, and

grow” (p. 2). This statement may be especially true among adolescents. Adolescents tend to

identify deeply with and show a strong commitment toward their music of preference (Austin,

2007; McFerran-Skewes, 2004). Tervo (2001) proposed that adolescents were able to connect

with emotions and express themselves effectively through the application of rock music in

therapy. Research has indicated that listening to preferred music has physiological effects on the

body as well. Wilson and Aiken (1977) found that college students who preferred rock music

responded physiologically through a general arousal-attention state when listening to this type of

music.

At-risk youth may be more likely to prefer music that is not socially accepted over

mainstream music. High academic achievement has been positively correlated to preference for

mainstream popular music, and negatively linked to an increased preference for music that is not

socially accepted (Roe, 1987). In addition, studies have indicated that youth who prefer music

that is not socially accepted may be more affected by their music of preference than youth who

prefer mainstream music, thus making them more receptive to therapies which include such

music. Roberts, Dimsdale, East, and Friedman (1998) discovered a relationship between high-

risk behavior and a strong, emotional response to preferred music among adolescents. The

authors suggested that individual personality traits (i.e. sensation-seeking) may be a linking

factor between risk-taking behaviors, emotional responsiveness, and music preference. Wooten

(1992) found that adolescents in a psychiatric inpatient facility who preferred heavy metal music

increased significantly in positive affect after listening to heavy metal. However, adolescents

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who preferred mainstream rock did not respond similarly upon listening to rock music. Along

with individual and social factors, cultural background may impact the music preference of

adolescents.

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention estimated that between 2000

and 2020 the number of Hispanic juveniles in the U.S. will increase 58%. Increases of 9% for

black juveniles, 16% for American Indian juveniles, and 59% for Asian juveniles were also

estimated. However, white juveniles will increase only by 7% (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006). As

our nation’s youth become more culturally diverse, cultural sensitivity becomes increasingly

important in the implementation of music therapy with at-risk youth. Establishing a positive

ethnic identity is central to healthy development in minority adolescents (Holman, 1996). This

objective may be addressed in music therapy through the use of culturally-appropriate music.

Hadley, Hadley, Dickens, and Jordan (2001) assert that utilizing styles and genres of music

which clients are able to identify with can be useful in a therapeutic setting to address learning

deficiencies, violence, and behavioral problems in youth populations. In addition, music can

assist in bridging cultural dissimilarities between counselors and clients of different cultural

backgrounds (Hadley et al., 2001; Kobin & Tyson, 2006). In example, a steadily growing body

of literature is available which details the success of using rap music – a genre securely

embedded within the culture of African-American youth, as an intervention with minority

juvenile delinquents and at-risk adolescents (Baker & Homan, 2007; Ciardiello, 2003; DeCarlo

& Hockman, 2003; Tillie Allen, 2005; Tyson, 2003). Kobin and Tyson (2006) state that rap

music has the potential to “bolster the self-efficacy of disempowered clients” (p. 345) and is “a

catalyst for culturally relevant self-expression” (p. 346).

Music Therapy Studies with At-Risk Youth. Many authors have documented the success

of music therapy programs for at-risk youth. Ragland and Apprey (1974) discussed the

implementation of a music therapy program in a community setting with black, at-risk youth.

Interventions such as choir rehearsal, music relaxation, music games, and lyric analysis resulted

in a variety of social and academic benefits for participants. Wasserman (1993) used group

singing, improvisation, and individual music lessons with girls living in foster homes to build

group cohesion and increase self-expression and self-confidence.

Authors have also identified specific elements of music therapy programs that contribute

to their success. In a 1975 study, Steele found that pre-teens and adolescents within a resident

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treatment center exhibited a high frequency of productive, on-task behavior during music therapy

groups. These results were concurrent with a therapist response style that was consistent,

frequently used non-verbal feedback, and primarily provided feedback in response to appropriate

behaviors. Sausser and Waller (2006) proposed a curriculum for using music therapy with

students with emotional and behavioral disorders to enhance self-confidence, self-worth and

socialization, among other outcomes. The authors concluded that music therapy programs that

are structured for successful experiences and feature hands-on activities are especially

appropriate for students with emotional and behavioral disorders.

Generalizing behaviors learned in a therapeutic setting and transferring these skills to

situations where they are applicable is often challenging for adolescents in therapy. Eidson, Jr.

(1989) conducted an experimental study with middle school students with emotional disorders.

Results indicated that the on-task behavior of music therapy participants increased significantly

in comparison to the control group. Interpersonal skills and behaviors developed in the music

therapy group transferred to the students’ general classrooms as well. Rickson and Watkins

(2003) reported similar results in a pilot study with adolescent boys with emotional, social, and

learning difficulties. Pro-social behaviors cultivated in music therapy groups purportedly

increased participants’ positive peer interactions when in the living area of their residential

facility.

Empirical studies support using music therapy to attain other treatment goals with at-risk

youth as well. Henderson (1983) found that music combined with group discussion, drawing,

identification of body language, and story composition resulted in significant improvements on

measures of group cohesion in a study with adolescents diagnosed with adjustment disorders.

Clendenon-Wallen (1991) reported that sexually-abused adolescents who participated in music

therapy groups exhibited an increase in self-confidence and self-esteem. Additionally, learning

new skills in music therapy was empowering to these adolescents. Montello and Coons (1998)

investigated the use of active and passive group music therapy interventions with pre-adolescents

who had emotional, learning and behavioral disorders. Both methods of music therapy

significantly improved attention, motivation, and hostility behaviors in participants.

Although the majority of published studies document the use of music with adolescents

in a group setting, music has been used effectively in individual therapy with adolescents as well

(Dvorkin, 1991; Keen, 2004; Kivland, 1986; Lefebvre, 1991). Keen (2004) employed music

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during individual therapy with adolescents who had emotional disorders. Music was used to

create a safe, welcoming environment for clients, and promote honest communication between

therapist and client. Kivland (1986) conducted an experimental study using piano playing and

music theory lessons therapeutically with an adolescent with conduct disorder. Results indicated

that self-esteem increased throughout the course of the intervention. Behaviors developed in

music therapy reportedly transferred successfully to other areas of the adolescent’s life as well.

In addition to the aforementioned at-risk populations, music therapists often work with juvenile

delinquents.

Studies have indicated that music can be effective in encouraging positive changes

among juvenile offenders. Johnson (1981) reported that involvement in music therapy resulted

in significant improvements on measures of self-concept among juvenile delinquents. Madsen

and Madsen (1968) utilized music as part of a behavioral modification approach with a juvenile

delinquent. Results indicated that background music and contingent music activities helped to

decrease the adolescent’s maladaptive behaviors and increase his positive social skills.

Gardstrom (1987) applied music therapy interventions within the framework of a group-oriented

treatment model for juvenile delinquents known as Positive Peer Culture. Peer feedback and the

accomplishment of challenging music activities helped young offenders develop pro-social skills

and a healthy self-image. Rio and Tenney (2002) used music with groups of adolescent male,

female, and sex offenders in a residential facility to pursue a number of social outcomes, such as

improving social interaction and relatedness, decreasing hostile and disruptive behavior,

developing empathy, and developing appropriate means of releasing energy.

One of the key treatment goals for juvenile offenders is to avoid recidivism by building

skills relevant to functioning successfully in society upon release. Wyatt (2002) describes using

music therapy interventions with this population to develop these functional skills, some of

which include impulse control, social aptitude, and problem solving. Similarly, Baker and

Homan (2007) included rapping, music sequencing, and song composition in a music program

with black juvenile offenders to encourage self-expression and strengthen skills such as decision-

making, organization, and socialization. The use of music therapy to address treatment issues of

at-risk youth in various settings has been thoroughly documented. Lyric analysis is one of the

most prominent music therapy interventions mentioned by researchers and clinicians in this body

of literature.

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Lyric Analysis Interventions

Lyric analysis is a commonly cited music therapy intervention which involves listening to

a popular song, interpreting the lyrics, and discussing feelings and issues that relate to the

content of the song lyrics (Bruscia, 1989; Silverman, 2003; Wolfe, 2000). This method is

referred to by various names: song lyric analysis (James & Freed, 1989), song discussion

(Bruscia, 1989), song lyric discussion (Grocke & Wigram, 2007), and active listening (Plach,

1980), to name a few. As ‘lyric analysis’ appears to be the most commonly used term for this

therapeutic technique, it will employed in this study. Lyric analysis interventions have been

employed with a diverse selection of populations, including psychiatric patients (Butler, 1966;

Gfeller, 1990), children (Heimlich, 1983; Hong, Hussey, & Heng, 1998), adolescents (Mark,

1986; Tyson, 2002), people who are chemically dependent (James, 1988; Jones, 2005; Mark,

1986), dually-diagnosed young adults (Bednarz & Nikkel, 1992), cancer patients (Bailey, 1984),

and prisoners under psychiatric care (Thaut, 1987).

Lyric analysis techniques may vary considerably depending on the therapeutic milieu,

objectives, and applied therapeutic framework. Lyric analysis has been used in both group

(Thaut, 1987) and individual settings (Elligan, 2004). In addition, songs for analysis and

discussion are played via recording (Thaut, 1987) or performed live (Butler, 1966), and are either

selected by the music therapist (Butler, 1966; Gfeller, 1990; James, 1988) or the client (Bailey,

1984; Grocke & Wigram, 2007; Hong et al., 1998). Lyric analysis has been utilized within a

variety of therapeutic orientations, including cognitive-behavioral (Selm, 1991), rational-

behavioral (Maultsby, 1977), rational-emotive (Ellis, 1981), and psychoanalytic (Diaz de

Chumaceiro, 1992) therapies. Each approach to lyric analysis has its own benefits and unique

strategies for addressing individual therapeutic goals.

Benefits of Lyric Analysis. Lyric analysis, as opposed to direct verbal interactions, is

commonly regarded as a safe, non-threatening therapeutic intervention. The familiarity of music

provides a sense of comfort and competence of communication (Mark, 1988). In a group setting,

lyric analyses promote sharing and openness to therapy (Baumel, 1973). Discussion of song

lyrics is also an engaging activity that can build rapport between the therapist and client

(Bednarz & Nikkel, 1992). James and Freed (1989) used lyric analysis to help create a sense of

relatedness and interpersonal identity between group members. Song lyrics were used as a

22

stimulus for individuals to share experiences, perceptions, and values with one another, thus

building trust and group cohesion.

Along with establishing a safe environment, lyric analyses can also promote the

expression of feelings and self in individuals who are unable or unwilling to do so. An

individual can project his or her own thoughts, feelings and experiences into the song lyrics

(Butler, 1966; Grocke & Wigram, 2007; Hong et al., 1998; Kaser, 1993). Many issues are often

too charged with emotion for an individual to discuss or acknowledge. When found within the

context of song lyrics, feelings regarding a subject can be externalized and desensitized

(Charlesworth, 1982); thus, conflicts that he or she is not capable of addressing directly can be

discussed comfortably through the words of the song (Mark, 1988).

Elements inherent to music also contribute to the effectiveness of analyzing songs as a

therapeutic intervention. Although similar to speech, song lyrics have the additional qualities of

rhyme and rhythm. These musical features make songs pleasurable and attractive as a

therapeutic technique (Heimlich, 1983). Additionally, music functions as a strong, affective

stimulus, capable of inducing and altering emotional reactions (Schiff & Frances, 1974; Thaut,

1989). In a 1994 study, Stratton and Zalanowski determined that combining music and lyrics

had a stronger affective influence on individuals than music or lyrics alone. In addition, Galizio

and Hendrick (1972) found that adding musical elements to a song’s lyrics resulted in greater

arousal of emotions and acceptance of the song’s message. Once aroused, emotions can be

analyzed and processed through cognitive discussion. Actual experience of an emotion in a

therapeutic setting, as opposed to simply discussing the feeling, can increase the effectiveness of

verbally processing emotions (Thaut, 1989). Furthermore, Maultsby (1977) states that the

combination of heightened emotion and cognitive processing of lyrics can be an effective

catalyst for rational learning. Finally, Funahashi and Carterette (1985) asserted that, when

stimulated by music, a reaction in the brain is often produced that facilitates empathy. Thus,

Kobin and Tyson (2006) suggest that “listening to or creating music in a group setting could

trigger client dialogue and exploration of relevant issues that would otherwise be difficult to

identify or access” (p. 344). The use of lyric analyses, then, appears warranted with at-risk

adolescents, as stimulating productive dialogue in a group setting with this population is often a

challenge.

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Lyric Analysis & At-Risk Adolescents. Lyric analysis techniques fit well into the

treatment of adolescent populations. The use of popular song lyrics with adolescents is a

culturally relevant way to enhance treatment goals (Tyson, 2002). As discussed earlier, the use

of preferred music is a particularly powerful tool with adolescents. Mark (1988) states that,

“Adolescents readily accept the messages in the songs and feel comfortable and competent

communicating in this familiar medium,” (p. 313).

Mark (1988) described the use of lyric analysis to address substance abuse issues with

male adolescent juvenile offenders in a treatment center. Song lyrics of rock music were used to

illustrate stages in the progression of addiction, supplementing a comprehensive drug education.

Analysis of song lyrics also provided adolescents an opportunity to identify and explore personal

feelings and experiences regarding addiction, confront defense mechanisms and discover

alternative methods of coping.

The use of rap music in therapy to engage at-risk and delinquent youth, occasionally

referred to as Hip-Hop Therapy (HHT) (Tyson, 2002, 2003; Tillie Allen, 2005) or Rap Therapy

(DeCarlo & Hockman, 2003; Elligan, 2004), has become popular in recent years. Rap music

originated in the 1970s as a major component of hip-hop culture, and is characterized by

rhyming lyrics which are spoken or “rapped” over a rhythmic backbeat (Decarlo & Hockman,

2003; Tyson, 2003). Although predominantly a cultural extension of African-American and

Latino youth, rap music’s popularity and influence is prevalent among youth of various races and

ethnic backgrounds (Tyson, 2003). The practice of both HHT and Rap Therapy is centered

around the analysis and discussion of rap music lyrics to either challenge negative messages

found in the lyrics and facilitate new interpretations of the lyrics or to use positive messages in

the lyrics to empower individuals and identify pro-social attitudes and appropriate behaviors

(DeCarlo & Hockman, 2003; Kobin & Tyson, 2006; Tillie Allen, 2005). Engaging and

empowering youth through music that is familiar and relevant to them is a key component of

HHT. By incorporating values and practice principles of the contemporary social work field

such as cultural-sensitivity, the strengths perspective, and the empowerment model, HHT builds

on the assets of adolescent individuals and their culture to develop solutions to problems (Kobin

& Tyson, 2006). Similarly, Elligan’s (2004) description of Rap Therapy includes a 5-step plan

for the therapeutic use of rap music with urban adolescents: 1) assess the individual’s interest

and background in hip-hop culture and develop a plan accordingly, 2) build rapport with the

24

individual through discussion of preferred music, 3) use songs lyrics of preferred rap music to

challenge and reframe patterns of thinking and behavior, 4) pursue personal goals through rap

songwriting, and 5) maintain progress.

Although the inclusion of lyric analysis in programs serving at-risk adolescents is

frequently described (Ciardiello, 2003; Elligan, 2004; Mark, 1988; Wyatt, 2002), few empirical

studies clearly documenting the effects of lyric analysis could be found (James, 1988; Jones,

2005; Moss, 2004; Tyson, 2002). In 1988, James measured the effects of four one-hour group

sessions employing lyric analysis with adolescents in substance abuse rehabilitation. Results

indicated that lyric analysis interventions can positively affect locus of control – or perceived

amount of control one has over one’s environment, and self-worth in adolescents experiencing

chemical dependency. Moss (2004) found that group discussion following lyric analysis was

effective in increasing clarification of values and decision-making skills of juvenile delinquents.

Tyson (2002) conducted a study using analysis of rap music with delinquent and at-risk youth as

an intervention to improve peer relations, self-concept, and experiences in therapy. Quantitative

results regarding peer relations and self-concept were not statistically significant, but qualitative

data suggested that youth were more enthusiastic toward treatment and more involved in the

treatment process when rap music was employed. Overall, the literature indicates that analyzing

songs from preferred genres of music can successfully engage at-risk adolescents and address

therapeutic issues in a non-confrontational manner. Songwriting is another music therapy

intervention that has been successfully implemented with at-risk youth.

Songwriting Interventions

Whereas the analysis of and reflection upon pre-composed song lyrics fundamental to

lyric analyses is a receptive process, songwriting is an active process, involving hands-on

musical and lyrical creation (McFerran-Skewes, 2004). Wigram and Baker (2005) described

songwriting in a therapeutic context as follows:

The process and product of writing a song within therapy sessions is the therapeutic

intervention. The therapeutic effect is brought about through the client’s creation,

performance and/or recording of his or her own song. The therapist’s role within the

therapeutic relationship is to facilitate this process ensuring that the client creates a

composition that can be felt as owned by the client and expressive of his or her personal

needs, feelings and thoughts (p. 14).

25

As a medium for self-expression, songwriting simultaneously provides a well-defined

sense of structure and allows for a wide breadth of flexibility (Robb, 1996). Schmidt (1983) and

Ficken (1976) both recommend approaching lyric writing through steps of approximation, based

on the level of functioning and comfort of the client. Music therapists have used a mixture of

songwriting techniques to ensure a successful experience, provide the appropriate level of

structure for individuals, and meet a variety of objectives (Ficken, 1976; Freed, 1987; Goldstein,

1990; Robb, 1996). The fill-in-the-blank technique, or cloze procedure, is highly structured and

non-threatening. Individuals either fill in specific words or complete lead-in sentences of edited

popular songs (Freed, 1987; Goldstein, 1990; Robb, 1996; Schmidt, 1983). Song parodies

involve replacing the lyrics of a popular song with original lyrics. A sense of familiarity and

comfort is sustained by retaining the song’s melodic and harmonic components (Freed, 1987;

McFerran-Skewes, 2004). Fully composed songs contain original musical and lyrical song

components. The music therapist generally assists individuals by brainstorming with them,

organizing lyrics, and offering choices regarding musical aspects of the song, such as melodic or

chord progressions (Edgerton, 1990; Ficken, 1976). Songwriting through vocal improvisation

provides an immediate musical experience and is characterized by the spontaneous creation of

lyrics. This mode of songwriting often takes on a storytelling or question/answer format and

may be accompanied by instrumental improvisation (Derrington, 2005; Edwards, 1998; Robb,

1996; Schmidt, 1983). Other modes of songwriting not mentioned here also have been described

in the literature (Ficken, 1976; Tamplin, 2006). Selecting the appropriate mode of songwriting

for a given group or individual is integral in order to allow individuals to “express and define

themselves in a format that meets their emotional needs in an organized and productive way”

(Derrington, 2005, p. 81).

The flexibility of songwriting as a music therapy intervention makes it an effective tool to

address a myriad of objectives within a diverse assortment of populations. As such, the use of

songwriting as a therapeutic intervention has been well documented in the music therapy

literature (Edwards, 1998; Ficken, 1976; Gallagher & Steele, 2002; Gfeller, 1987; Glassman,

1991; Mayers, 1995; O’Callaghan, 1996; Silber & Hes, 1995; Silverman, 2003; Wigram &

Baker, 2005). Songwriting with adolescent populations is equally well-represented. The

literature includes a wealth of case studies and a few empirical research articles (Wigram &

Baker, 2005).

26

Adolescents and Songwriting. The use of writing as a form of self-expression among

adolescents is common. In a 1985 study, Roscoe, Krug and Schmidt found that 86% of high

school students engaged in writing poetry, diary entries, short stories, or songs for personal self-

expression. Since adolescents naturally gravitate towards writing to express themselves,

songwriting may be indicated as a safe, non-threatening medium with which to meet these youth

in the therapeutic realm. Songwriting has frequently been implemented by music therapists to

address the needs of adolescents in hospital, psychiatric, and bereavement settings (Dalton &

Krout, 2005, 2006; Frisch, 1990; Goldstein, 1990; Robb, 1996; Robb & Ebberts, 2003a, 2003b).

The application of songwriting with at-risk youth has also been described by a number of authors

(Derrington, 2005; Edgerton, 1990, Elligan, 2004; Gardstrom, 1987; McFerran-Skewes, 2004).

The most pervasive problem among delinquent youth, according to Gardstrom (1987), is

low self-concept. Whereas a distorted and low sense of self can lead to numerous consequent

problems, a healthy self-image can alleviate many of these issues. Camilleri (2000) adds that

“low self-esteem can affect students’ academic results, social interactions, and the overall

development of strengths and skills” (p. 187). Songwriting has been used with at-risk adolescents

to address self-esteem, as well as self-expression and other therapeutic goals relating to

emotional difficulties (Lindberg, 1995; Frisch, 1990).

Lindberg (1995) employed songwriting as an intervention with an abused adolescent to

promote expression of feelings and build self-esteem, assertiveness skills, and decision-making

skills. Progress was also identified through a steady increase in the adolescent’s level of

participation and a progressively more positive outlook evident in the lyrical content of the

adolescent’s songs. Among adolescent psychiatric inpatients, Frisch (1990) emphasized the

importance of songwriting in its ability to allow such individuals to express intense emotions,

cope with anxiety and change, and work through difficult issues in a safe and appealing

environment. She added that “songs can make powerful statements that neither words nor music,

alone, can” (Frisch, 1990, p. 26). Similarly, in a study with adolescents who have been sexually

abused, Clendenon-Wallen (1991) noted that songwriting combined with rhythm playing was a

particularly strong intervention for stimulating creative self-expression.

Cognitive benefits of songwriting have been detailed by several authors (Elligan, 2004;

Glassman, 1991; Jones, 2005; Robb, 1996). Elligan (2004) used rap songwriting to encourage

adolescent clients to take an active role in their treatment. Clients would write a succession of

27

songs throughout treatment and analyze the lyrics collaboratively with the therapist.

Songwriting stimulated a cognitive shift among clients, enabling them to progress from initially

maladaptive thought processes to healthier, more productive ways of thinking.

The use of songwriting in a group setting is frequently mentioned throughout the

literature (Cordobes, 1997; Dalton & Krout, 2006; Edgerton, 1990; Ficken, 1976; Gallagher &

Steele, 2002; Jones, 2005; McFerran-Skewes, 2004; Murphy, 1983; Schmidt, 1983; Silber &

Hes, 1995). Gardstrom (1987) stated that in group songwriting, adolescents learned to overcome

individual differences, cooperate and compromise, putting needs of the group over that of the

individual. Edgerton (1990) described the use of songwriting with groups of emotionally

impaired male adolescents in a residential facility. Edgerton used a success-oriented approach

referred to as Creative Group Songwriting. In this approach, adolescents were just as involved in

constructing musical components of a song and learning to perform a song instrumentally and

vocally as they were in writing the song’s lyrics. Development of group cohesion and an increase

in self-esteem were evident among group members throughout the activity. Composing, lyric

writing and performing songs also provided a channel for self-expression. McFerran-Skewes

(2004) found that songwriting can be effective in encouraging honest, authentic sharing and

developing group cohesion among teenagers who had social and school difficulties. Identity

formation, a common area of internal conflict in adolescents, was achieved by expressing oneself

through song and receiving feedback from the group.

The literature has clearly indicated a number of ways in which songwriting can address

the needs of at-risk adolescents. Although many studies have described songwriting techniques

and their associated benefits, few studies have attempted to identify themes in songwriting and

how these themes may relate to treatment issues (Baker et al., 2005; O’Callaghan, 1996; Robb &

Ebberts, 2003b).

Content Analysis and the Identification of Songwriting Themes. Content analysis is the

process of classifying and reducing textual materials into content categories that are smaller and

more manageable in order to make valid inferences about the original text (Weber, 1990). Music

therapy studies which aimed to identify themes in songs written by clients all employed some

form of content analysis to examine and classify lyrics into appropriate categories.

Cordobes (1997) included content analysis in an experimental study with adults

diagnosed with depression, as well as having AIDS or being HIV-Seropositive. Eighteen

28

participants were randomly placed in groups participating in either songwriting, game-playing,

or no treatment. Both the percentage of emotion words and number of total words used within

the songwriting group were significantly greater than that of the game playing group. In

addition, a content analysis of group discussions and song lyrics showed that a focus on issues

related to treatment was evident in the songwriting group which did not appear in the other

experimental groups.

In 2005, Baker et al. analyzed songs from 32 clients between ages 5 and 60. Themes in

lyrics of songs written by clients with traumatic brain injury were identified. The researchers

used a modified content analysis approach, in which 8 themes and 24 subcategories were

generated prior to analyzing songs. Each lyric line of 82 songs written by clients was assigned to

a category according to best fit. Themes most frequently found in the songs were self-reflections

and messages, followed by memories and reflections upon significant others. The authors

concluded that songwriting is not only important in providing clients with traumatic brain injury

a means to express themselves and reflect upon their situation, but also to communicate

messages to family and friends.

Robb and Ebberts (2003b) employed content analysis of lyrics written by pediatric

patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation as one element of a two-part study. Four

independent reviewers surveyed songs written by three patients, then conferred as a group to

establish thematic coding categories. Themes present in the songs included positive coping,

hope, positive and negative views of physical status, positive mental status, and appreciation.

The study provided insight into patient experiences and coping strategies. Robb and Ebberts

concluded that songwriting may be warranted for treatment, as themes in the songs were

primarily positive and represented processes indicative of healthy growth, adjustment, and

quality of life in adolescent patients.

Finally, O’Callaghan (1996) used content analysis and a modified Grounded Theory

approach to identify lyrical themes in songs by palliative care patients. Thirty-nine patients

wrote a total of 64 songs that were broken down and categorized into eight themes and 27 coding

categories. The most frequently appearing lyrical categories were compliments to friends, family

or staff, messages for others, and memories. The author pointed out that the lyrical themes

identified in this study paralleled many goals of palliative care. Thus, songwriting “may aid in

29

meeting their [patients’] physical, psycho-social, and spiritual needs,” (O’Callaghan, 1996, p. 74)

and can be an effective intervention for patients in this population.

Rationale for Study

This study addresses a gap in the research literature regarding songwriting and lyric analysis

interventions with at-risk adolescents. Few published studies have conducted a thorough

analysis of lyrical content in songs written by clients within a therapeutic setting. No published

studies were found which served to examine themes in songs written by at-risk adolescents.

Along the same lines, no published music therapy studies with at-risk adolescents could be found

that employed content analysis to examine verbal responses within a lyric analysis activity.

The identification of themes and trends of word use in at-risk adolescent songwriting lyrics

and lyric analysis responses may serve a number of purposes. Robb and Ebberts (2003b)

emphasized that insight could be gleaned by recognizing themes in songs written by clients.

Thus, such an examination may offer insight into strengths, perceptions and experiences of

adolescents that could guide music therapists in appropriate implementation of future music

therapy interventions. O’Callaghan’s (1996) assessment of themes in songs written by patients

was analogous to aims of treatment in palliative care. Along these lines, investigation into

themes and word use within songwriting and lyric analysis activities may support the efficacy of

applying these music therapy interventions with at-risk youth. Finally, identifying differences, if

any, between at-risk adolescents in community and residential settings in regards to these music

therapy interventions may help music therapists specify treatment to the needs of each of these

populations.

Research Questions

1. Do songs written by adolescents living in a residential setting and adolescents living in a

typical home environment contain similar thematic content and word usage?

2. Do adolescents living in a residential setting and adolescents living in a typical home

environment exhibit similar thematic content and word usage in responses to lyric

analysis questions?

3. Do themes found in adolescent lyric analysis responses and songwriting lyrics parallel

therapeutic goals of this population?

30

CHAPTER III

METHOD

Participants

Participants were two groups of adolescents (N = 30). One group was living with family

members in a typical home environment (n = 15) and the other group was living in a voluntary,

short-term, residential facility (n = 15). Ages ranged from 12 to 17 years with a mean age of

13.8 years. Eighteen female and 12 male adolescents participated in the study, and participants

consisted of 28 African-American and two Caucasian individuals. Adolescents at the residential

facility included runaway youth and individuals who were admitted by their parents. Youth were

admitted in order to receive counseling, and to have a “cooling off” period for both parents and

children as a result of difficult issues between family members at home. Participants living in a

typical home environment were selected from a community after-school program designed to

offer guidance to disadvantaged youth. Although neither program had requirements to receive

services, both programs primarily served minority youth from low socioeconomic families.

Permissions from all participants and parents or guardians were obtained through the collection

of child assent forms and parent consent forms or letters.

Setting

The setting was dependent upon the phase of the study. This study was conducted in

three phases: a listening phase, participant interview phase, and group songwriting phase. The

setting was an enclosed activity room at each facility. When staff was available to assist the

researcher, the listening phase of the study took place in a second room to accelerate the research

process and to work within the time constraints of the facility.

For the listening phase and participant interview phase, a Sony ICF-CD831 CD player

and a Sony ICD-P520 digital voice recorder were placed on a table in the activity room next to

the researcher. Two chairs were set up near the table so that the researcher and participant sat

face-to-face during the participant interview phase. Music volume of the CD player was

adjusted to the participant’s preference prior to the start of the study.

The group songwriting phase of the study was conducted in groups of three to four

participants. This group size is typical for adolescent therapy groups and still small enough to

allow for individual input during group activities. Chairs equivalent to the number of

31

participants were placed in a semi-circle near a marker board in the room, along with a chair for

the researcher facing the participants.

Materials and Equipment

Songs used for lyric analyses were selected by the researcher based on the following

criteria:

1) Song lyrics contain no obscene language or violent, sexual, or otherwise inappropriate themes.

2) Songs contain lyrics that are intelligible and audibly understandable.

3) Content of song lyrics is relevant to contemporary adolescent issues.

4) Songs are within the popular music genre and have been released within the past three years

of this study.

The two songs selected for use in this study were There’s Hope by India.Arie and Hey

Mama by Kanye West. Compact-disc recordings of each song were obtained and played on a

CD player. In addition, lyric sheets for each song were given to all participants prior to the

presentation of each song (See Appendix A).

A handout containing a series of questions about the song lyrics was used to prompt

participant responses during the participant interview phase of the study. Questions used in the

participant interview phase were chosen by first surveying a wide range of sources describing

song analysis techniques (Ahola, 2005; Beacon Learning Center, 2005; Grocke & Wigram,

2007; Library of Congress, 2002, 2007; Steele, 2007; Waligora, 2006; Wiehe, 1996). The

researcher then selected and/or revised twenty questions that were most appropriate for the

purposes of this study. A group of five practicing music therapists and music therapy interns

were then asked to choose five questions out of the twenty that they felt would best elicit

responses from an adolescent population. Based on their expertise, the researcher devised the

final list of questions to be used in the study. Questions were the same for each song analyzed.

Participants were asked to answer five open-ended questions regarding the song lyrics and to

select two lines within each song’s lyrics that they felt were most meaningful to them (See

Appendix B).

Participants orally responded to the questions on their handout. A digital voice recorder

was used to capture responses for transcription and analysis purposes. The decision to have

participants respond orally circumvented the typically weak writing skills of many disadvantaged

youth (Chall & Jacobs, 1983). Also, some adolescents in this population may have been

32

intimidated or discouraged by the prospect of providing paragraph-length written responses to

the number of lyric analysis questions used in this study; therefore, it is likely that responding

orally allowed participants to express themselves more easily and thoroughly than if they were

required to respond in writing.

Musical equipment used in the songwriting activity included an acoustic guitar, electronic

keyboard, hand drums and other percussion instruments. Song lyrics, song structure and musical

details of each song were written down on a large marker board during the activity.

Procedure

Listening Phase. Participants were given lyric sheets for both songs and a handout

containing the lyric analysis interview questions. Verbal instructions and a description of the

activity were provided and the interview questions were reviewed. At this point, any questions

from participants regarding the procedure were answered. For each song, participants first

followed along on the lyric sheet while listening to a recorded voice reading the song lyrics.

This opportunity was provided in order to allow participants to become familiar with the text

prior to listening to the song, thus freeing them to focus on the meaning of the lyrics when the

music was playing. Once participants completed reading the lyrics for both songs, a compact-

disc recording of the song was played via a CD player.

Participant Interview Phase. Participants were interviewed individually after listening to

the audio recording of each song. Questions were asked verbatim from the interview question

handout. Participants were instructed to speak as much as they could in response to each

question, and to indicate when they were finished by saying, “next.” This procedure prevented

the researcher from interrupting and asking if the participant had anything more to say.

Responses were provided orally and audio recorded for transcription.

Group Songwriting Phase. After all participants for the day had individually completed

the participant interview phase, the activity room was set up for the group songwriting phase and

participants were called back into the room. In order to assure that the lyrics were truly that of

the participants, the researcher contributed no lyrical content to the participants’ songs during

this phase of the study. Instead, the researcher prompted participants with questions to assist

with brainstorming and organizing lyrics.

Each group first chose a topic for their song. To stimulate ideas for a topic, the

researcher prompted participants by asking, “How do musicians decide what they are going to

33

write about in their songs?” Most groups eventually concluded that songwriters wrote about

“personal experiences” or “things that are important to them,” and used these conclusions as a

basis for their own songs. As participants suggested song topics, a list was created on the marker

board. Participants then voted on their favorite song topic. Once a topic was selected,

participants brainstormed ideas related to the main topic by stating single words or phrases

related to the central topic. Next, the actual lyrics were written, utilizing input from all

individuals. Throughout this process, the researcher encouraged participants to consider if their

song lyrics accurately portrayed their thoughts and feelings, and to strive for fluency and

consistency of word rhythm within the song lyrics. Song structure tended to develop

organically; that is, as lyrics were created and written down, ideal placement of chorus and

verses became evident to participants.

All lyrical aspects of the song were original creations by the participants. Musical

aspects of the song were original creations by the researcher and participants, including key,

genre, rhythms, harmony, melody, and instrumentation. The researcher provided guidance by

suggesting options for participants to choose from (i.e. presenting two chord progressions for the

chorus) or encouraging individuals to create original musical ideas (i.e. devising percussive

rhythms to supplement the song).

Measurements

Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count. Participants’ interview responses and songwriting

lyrics were analyzed with Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) (Pennebaker, Booth, &

Francis, 2007), a software program that analyzes the content of written text. Interview responses

were first transcribed into written form, and then entered into LIWC. The 2007 version of the

program utilizes a dictionary of nearly 4,500 words and word stems. The dictionary database is

searched to find matches for each word of a text entered into the program. Words from a text are

then categorized into 80 wide-ranging output variables. Some output categories include general

descriptors (i.e. word count, words per sentence, percent of words longer than six letters),

standard linguistic dimensions (i.e. pronouns, articles, verbs, negations), and psychological

constructs (i.e. positive or negative emotion, social references, cognitive processes) (Pennebaker,

Chung, Ireland, Gonzales, & Booth, 2007). Output variables used in this study are listed in

Table 1. To ensure that texts of different lengths can be compared, all results in LIWC are listed

as percentages of total word use.

34

The LIWC dictionary lists were originally compiled through numerous brainstorming

sessions conducted by three to six judges. Three independent judges then rated each category to

determine word inclusion in the dictionary. Final rates of agreement for inclusion in each

category ranged from 93 to 100%. Validity of LIWC has been further supported in a study by

Kahn, Tobin, Massey, and Anderson (2007). These researchers conducted a set of three

experimental studies which indicated that LIWC accurately assesses verbal expression of

emotion.

Table 1

LIWC Output Categories

LIWC Output Categories

Examples of Words in Category

Social Processes Mate, talk, they, child

Family Daughter, husband, aunt

Affective Processes Happy, cried, abandon

Positive Emotion Love, nice, sweet

Negative Emotion Hurt, ugly, nasty

Cognitive Mechanics Cause, know, ought

Total Pronouns I, them, itself

Personal Pronouns I, them, her

1

s

t

Person Singular I, me, mine

1

s

t

Person Plural We, us, our

Total 2

n

d

Person You, your, thou

3

r

d

Person Singular She, her, him

3

r

d

Person Plural They their, they’d

Impersonal Pronouns It, it’s those

Past Tense Went, ran, had

Present Tense Is, does, hear

Future Tense Will, gonna

Content Analysis. Interview responses and group songwriting lyrics were analyzed for

thematic content and patterns through content analysis. Interview responses were first

transcribed, then analyzed. Through classification, content analysis condenses textual material

into more pertinent, manageable pieces of data. Content analysis is commonly used to reveal the

focus of an individual or group and to describe trends in the content of communication (Weber,

1990). The content analysis process was utilized in this study to reduce words within written

texts into fewer content categories.

35

In content analysis, thematic coding categories are not identified beforehand, but rather

are based upon texts generated by participants. In the current study, thematic coding categories

were developed by carefully reviewing song lyrics and interview responses. Three readers, all

board-certified music therapists, independently reviewed lyrics of songs written by participants

in order to identify thematic categories and patterns. Upon conferring with one another, the

readers designed a separate set of categories and their operational definitions for the song lyrics.

The readers then independently analyzed the texts again and placed each song lyric line into the

most appropriate thematic category. Each lyric line was assigned to a single category. Duplicate

lyric lines from chorus sections were only coded once. Interrater reliability scores were

calculated during the concluding phase of categorization to ensure uniformity between content

raters. At least two out of the three researchers selected the same category for 91% of the lyric

lines, while 9% of the lyric lines had to be re-discussed among the three readers due to all

readers selecting different categories.

Transcripts of interview responses were similarly analyzed and placed into thematic

categories devised by the researcher, with the assistance of a reliability observer. Unlike coding

of the song lyrics, if the thematic content of a participant’s interview response covered multiple

topics and warranted being coded into multiple categories, the response was coded in this

manner. To demonstrate interrater reliability, interview responses from six participants (20% of

N) were randomly selected and given to one board-certified music therapist. This reliability

observer attempted to code interview responses into thematic categories based upon the

categories devised by the researcher. Based on this procedure, interrater reliability was 84%.

36

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Data Analyses for Research Question One

Do songs written by adolescents living in a residential setting and adolescents living in a

typical home environment contain similar thematic content and word usage?

Participant-composed song lyrics are listed in Appendix C. Sixteen categories emerged

from the content analysis of songs written by participants. Some of these categories warrant

explanations, while others are self-explanatory. The categories are listed below:

-Regret: Statements conveying a sense of remorse for past actions.

-Loss of control or feeling restrained: Statements conveying feelings of helplessness or

experiences of events beyond one’s ability to control.

-Determination: Statements conveying a sense of purpose, intention, or resolution toward future

actions.

-Positive self-image

-Reflections of home or childhood

-Hope: Positive statements regarding future outcomes, including wishes and desires.

-Social/peers (positive or negative)

-Family (positive or negative)

-Expression of feelings or self (positive or negative)

-Experiences (positive or negative)

-Coping strategies (positive or negative): Statements describing behavioral or psychological

methods of responding to stressful events.

Each lyric line from the songs written by participants was placed into the most

appropriate category using the method described in the previous chapter. Frequencies of the

thematic categories are listed in Table 2. Highlighted lines on the table indicate categories

containing the most noteworthy differences between the two groups. Predominant themes found

in songs written by participants in the residential setting included ‘loss of control or feeling

restrained’, ‘regret’, ‘positive self-image’, and ‘coping strategies’. Predominant themes found in

songs written by participants in the community setting included ‘negative experiences’, ‘positive

social/peers’, and ‘positive self-image’. Songs written by participants in the residential setting

37

contained considerably more lyric lines which expressed regret, loss of control, and feeling

restrained, whereas participants in the community setting devoted more lyric lines to discussing

positive aspects of peer relationships and negative general experiences.

Table 2

Content Analysis of Songs Written by Participants

Percentage of Lyric Lines

Thematic Categories

Residential Setting

Community Setting

Regret 10.0 0

Loss of Control or Feeling Restrained 18.0 2.2

Determination 6.0 8.7

Positive Self-Image 14.0 10.7

Reflections of Home or Childhood 6.0 6.5

Hope 4.0 0

Social/Peers 4.0 19.6

Positive 0 13.0

Negative 4.0 6.5

Family 8.0 10.7

Positive 8.0 4.3

Negative 0 6.5

Expression of Feelings or Self 10.0 4.3

Positive 2.0 2.2

Negative 8.0 2.2

Experiences 6.0 26.1

Positive 2.0 4.3

Negative 4.0 21.7

Coping Strategies 14.0 10.7

Positive 10.0 2.2

Negative 4.0 8.7

Note. Frequency of themes was calculated as a percentage by use of the following formula:

Number of lyric lines coded in a thematic category/total number of lyric lines

38

Results calculated by the LIWC software program identifying frequency of word usage

are listed in Table 3. The most notable discrepancies between the two at-risk groups were found

in the output categories of ‘social processes’, ‘impersonal pronouns’, and ‘past tense’ words.

Table 3

LIWC Results for Songwriting Lyrics

Percentage of Word Usage

LIWC Output Categories

Residential Setting

Community Setting

Social Processes 9.48 13.49

Family .75 2.12

Affective Processes 9.23 9.26

Positive Emotion 4.74 7.41

Negative Emotion 4.49 2.91

Cognitive Mechanics 18.95 19.84

Total Pronouns 21.70 22.75

Personal Pronouns 18.20 16.67

1

s

t

Person Singular 12.72 10.85

1

s

t

Person Plural .25 1.85

Total 2

n

d

Person 4.24 2.91

3

r

d

Person Singular 0 .53

3

r

d

Person Plural 1.00 .53

Impersonal Pronouns 3.49 6.08

Past Tense 3.99 1.06

Present Tense 13.47 14.55

Future Tense 2 1.32

Summary response to the research question.

Songs written by participants from both groups contained themes reflecting both positive

and negative aspects of their lives, and were relevant to their current life situations. The

participants’ songs described relationships with other people, hardships and difficulties the

participants were facing (or had faced), and personal strengths and triumphs. However, some

distinct differences emerged within the thematic content of song lyrics between the at-risk

groups. Combined, the thematic categories ‘regret’ and ‘loss of control or feeling restrained’

comprised 28% of lyric lines written by participants from the residential setting, compared to

2.2% of the community group’s lyric lines. In contrast, participants from the community setting

wrote considerably more lyric lines within the thematic categories of ‘positive social/peers’ and

‘negative experiences’. Percentage of word usage in song lyrics supported the results found in

39

some thematic categories. ‘Past tense’ word usage was greater for the residential group, which

ran parallel to the high frequency of this group’s lyric lines in the ‘regret’ thematic category.

Percentage of word usage in the ‘social processes’ category was greater for the community

group, similar to the higher frequency of this group’s lyric lines in the ‘social/peers’ thematic

category. Other thematic categories, including ‘positive self-image’ and ‘family,’ appeared

frequently in lyric lines of songs written by participants from both groups.

Data Analyses for Research Question Two

Do adolescents living in a residential setting and adolescents living in a typical home

environment exhibit similar thematic content and word usage in responses to lyric analysis

questions?

Responses to all five lyric analysis questions within the participant interview phase of the

study were transcribed and entered into the LIWC software program. A t-test revealed a

significant difference between participants from residential and community settings in the LIWC

output categories of ‘total pronouns’ and ‘impersonal pronouns’. Participants from the

community setting used significantly more pronouns and impersonal pronouns than participants

from the residential setting. No significant differences were found between the at-risk groups

concerning word use in any other categories. The results of these t-tests are displayed in Table 4.

Table 4

t-tests of LIWC Categories of Word Usage

Category

T

Df

P

Social Processes 1.13 28 .27

Family 1.14 28 .26

Affective Processes .36 28 .72

Positive Emotion .47 28 .64

Negative Emotion .30 28 .77

Cognitive Mechanics .10 28 .92

Total Pronouns 3.06 28 .00*

Personal Pronouns .44 28 .66

1

s

t

Person Singular .12 28 .91

1

s

t

Person Plural .60 28 .55

Total 2

n

d

Person .25 28 .81

3

r

d

Person Singular 1.05 28 .30

3

r

d

Person Plural 1.28 28 .21

Impersonal Pronouns 3.39 28 .00*

40

Table 4—continued

t-tests of LIWC Categories of Word Usage

Category

T

Df

P

Past Tense 1.41 28 .17

Present Tense .14 28 .89

Future Tense .29 28 .77

*p < .05

Content analyses of each of the five interview questions were also performed. These

results are outlined below. Due to the disparity of themes present between questions and songs,

responses were analyzed and coded into thematic categories separately for each question. For

questions one, three, and five, responses were also coded separately for each of the two songs

analyzed. Additionally, within questions one, three, and five, thematic categories that did not

appear at least twice within one group were excluded from the tables below.

Question 1: What does the song say about life?

Results of the content analyses for Question 1 are displayed in Tables 5 and 6.

Responses to the song “There’s Hope” indicated that participants from the residential setting

placed a far greater importance on the idea that wealth is not a requirement for happiness than

did participants from the community setting (See Themes 1 and 3 on Table 5).

Table 5

Question 1: What does the song say about life?

Song: There’s Hope

Percentage of Responses

Themes Residential Community

1. Life is what you make of it; you can be happy and live

life to the fullest with what you have

33.3 6.7

2. There is always hope in life 26.7 26.7

3. You don’t need money to be happy 26.7 6.7

4. You can accomplish anything you wish to pursue in life 13.3 33.3

5. Don’t give up 13.3 13.3

6. The song told a story about traveling and/or meeting

people from different cultures

0 20.0

7. Stand up for yourself and your beliefs 0 13.3

41

Themes containing positive perceptions of family appeared more frequently than any

other themes among both groups of participants in responses to “Hey Mama”. Five out of the

six most prominent themes contained a positive portrayal of one’s mother (See Table 6). This is

significant, bearing in mind the high level of family instability many individuals from the

residential setting were facing during participation in this study.

Table 6

Question 1: What does the song say about life?

Song: Hey Mama

Percentage of Responses

Themes Residential Community

1. Love your mother 40.0 13.3

2. Support and give back to your mother when you can 33.3 20.0

3. Appreciate your mother 13.3 13.3

4. Mothers support their children 13.3 0

5. Life is too short to waste 13.3 0

6. Have faith in your mother and don’t give up on her 0 13.3

Question 2: What feelings does the song bring to mind?

Responses to this question are presented in Table 7. The number of participants who

used positive and negative feeling words to describe each song was strikingly similar between

groups. Also of note was the amount of responses which utilized no feeling words whatsoever in

response to this question. Over one third of participants from both groups responded without

using any feeling words. In addition, when using feeling words, participants from both groups

predominantly used simplistic words to describe their feelings. In Table 7, categories labeled

‘Other’ indicate the use of a wider vocabulary of feeling words such as ‘proud’, ‘depressed’, and

‘confident’. However, the use of these feeling words was vastly outnumbered by such basic

feeling words as ‘happy’, ‘love’, and ‘sad’.

42

Table 7

Question 2: What feelings does the song bring to mind?

Frequencies

Themes Residential Community

Positive feeling words used to describe song 14 16

1. Happy 10 5

2. Hope 1 5

3. Love 1 4

4. Good 1 1

5. Other 5 3

Negative feeling words used to describe song 6 4

1. Sad 3 4

2. Other 3 2

Did not mention any feeling words in the response 12 11

1. Told a story or described something else 6 10

2. Stated “No feelings” or “Nothing” 4 1

3. Stated “I don’t know” 2 0

Stated “emotional” or “deep” feelings 1 1

Note. Some participants used more than one type of positive or negative feeling word in their

response, thus the total frequencies of all subcategories within a particular thematic category may

not be equal to the total number of responses in that thematic category.

Question 3: What did the song make you think about?

Results of the content analyses for Question 3 are displayed in Tables 8 and 9.

Responses concerning “There’s Hope” were primarily positive, and did not contain any major

discrepancies between groups. However, it is of note that the emphasis on wealth not being a

requirement for happiness, as with Question 1, appears most prominently among participants

from the residential setting (Theme 2 on Table 8).

43

Table 8

Question 3: What did the song make you think about?

Song: There’s Hope

Percentage of Responses

Themes Residential Community

1. Positive feelings or sense of self 26.7 20.0

2. Some people aren’t as fortunate as me, and I can be

happy and thankful for what I have

26.7 13.3

3. Having hope 26.7 6.7

4. Family 20.0 13.3

5. Current events 13.3 20.0

6. Helping people who don’t have as much as me 0 13.3

7. Meeting new people, possibly from different cultures 0 13.3

8. God 0 13.3

For “Hey Mama”, a substantial number of participants responded to Question 3 by simply

stating “my mother,” or answering equivalently. Regardless, as with Question 1, positive themes

concerning one’s mother were most prevalent among both groups of participants in responses to

“Hey Mama”. The one exception to this was the theme of regret (Theme 2 on Table 9), which

appeared only among participants from the residential setting.

Table 9

Question 3: What did the song make you think about?

Song: Hey Mama

Percentage of Responses

Themes Residential Community

1. My mother 40.0 60.0

2. Regret 20.0 0

3. Appreciation for the things my mother does for me 13.3 20.0

4. Will pay back and support my mother when I can 13.3 13.3

5. Positive close relationships 13.3 0

6. Love 0 20.0

7. Trying to do the best I can in the future 0 13.3

Question 4: Did you like the song? Why or why not?

Table 10 indicates participants’ preference for the two songs used in this study, whereas

Table 11 states their reason for liking or disliking the songs. Participants from residential and

community settings responded similarly to Question 4, unanimously approving of both songs.

44

Table 10

Question 4: Did you like the song?

Percentage of Responses

Themes Residential Community

1. Yes 86.7 93.3

2. No 6.7 6.7

3. Neutral 6.7 0

The vast majority of participants also identified aspects of the song’s lyrics as the

determining factor as to why they did or did not like the song, as opposed to identifying a song’s

musical characteristics, musical genre, or performing artist as a contributing factor.

Table 11

Question 4: Why or why not?

Percentage of Responses

Themes Residential Community

1. Lyrics 70.0 73.3

2. Music 16.7 20.0

3. Undeterminable 13.3 6.7

Question 5: Select two lyric lines from the song which are most meaningful to you. Which lines

did you choose and why?

Tables 12 and 13 list each group’s most frequently selected lyric lines. Each song

contains lyric lines selected frequently by participants from both groups (See Lyric Line 1 on

Table 12), as well as some selected almost, if not totally, exclusively by one group or the other

(See Lyric Lines 1, 2, and 7 on Table 13). Selected lyric lines may be indicative of specific

issues important to a particular population. For instance, Lyric Lines 1 and 2 on Table 13 may

indicate that similar experiences have been faced by participants from the residential setting in

the past. This was generally supported through participants’ explanations as to why they

selected each lyric line.

45

Table 12

Question 5: Select two lyric lines from the song which are most meaningful to you.

Song: There’s Hope

Percentage of Responses

Lyric Lines Residential Community

1. It ain’t about the size of your car, it’s about the size of

the faith in your heart

33.3 26.7

2. Stand up for your rights 20.0 13.3

3. You better thank God for that 13.3 26.7

4. That I could accomplish anything, you see just like me

he wanted to sing

6.7 26.7

5. You see zero didn’t satisfy me, a million didn’t make

happy

13.3 20.0

6. It doesn’t cost a thing to smile 13.3 20.0

Table 13

Question 5: Select two lyric lines from the song which are most meaningful to you.

Song: Hey Mama

Percentage of Responses

Lyric Lines Residential Community

1. You work late nights just to keep on the lights 26.7 6.7

2. And you never put no man over me 26.7 0

3. I appreciate what you allowed for me 13.3 20.0

4. I said mommy I’ma love you till you don’t hurt no more 13.3 20.0

5. It don’t gotta be Mother’s Day or your birthday 13.3 20.0

6. I just want you to be proud of me 6.7 20.0

7. Hey mama, I wanna scream so loud for you, because

I’m so proud of you

0 20.0

Reasons for selecting lyric lines were so diverse that themes could not be summarized.

Most participants’ explanations mirrored the content of the lyric lines they selected. Some

examples are as follows:

“Because if you got a car, and it’s all nice and blinged up, people gonna start hating on you and

stuff. But, if you got a big heart, people gonna start to like you. But they’re gonna like you

better than that car you have.”

“I thought that was kinda cool cause, it’s like when you learn something, you gonna learn more

about yourself and what the lesson is. So, if you made a mistake, you gonna learn about that

mistake and hopefully not do it over again.”

46

“Cause that’s a true statement. Cause everyday you see somebody going out trying to shoot

somebody, blow up something, try to kill somebody. So I guess that what she’s saying is real.”

“Just don’t let things get to you. I started letting things get to me, but now I realize that I got

control of the issue.”

“My mama made the best food I ever tasted. I always wanted me a second bowl.”

“I like that because I can relate to him when he says that. Because my mom, she used to work

late to keep the lights on and keep us food in the house. So that’s why I liked that one.”

“The first one I chose because my mama always worked late nights. She was the number one

dispatcher. And we was going through so much and she was trying to keep the lights on, but she

got fired and the lights got turned off and now she’s where she’s at.”

“Because when I chose to do things that I wanted to do, my mom stood there and she never

turned her back, even though I felt like she did.”

“Cause something similar happened to me and my mother. She was in the bathroom crying

because of a man and I sat down with her.”

“Because I smile a lot and if it did cost anything to smile, then I would be paying a lot of

money.”

Summary response to the research question.

Analysis of word usage within lyric analysis responses using the LIWC software program

revealed a high level of correspondence between the groups, with the exception of two

categories. Usage of words from the ‘total pronouns’ and ‘impersonal pronouns’ categories was

significantly greater within the community group. The thematic content of lyric analysis

responses for both songs contained unanimously positive themes between the two at-risk groups,

and focused repeatedly on the same topics. The focus of responses to “There’s Hope” centered

on having hope, self-confidence, and pride. Likewise, responses to “Hey Mama” were focused

on positive portrayals of one’s mother, as well as showing appreciation and support for her.

Both groups used substantially more positive feeling words than negative feeling words in their

responses. Additionally, the majority of participants from both groups indicated that they

enjoyed the songs, for similar reasons. Thematic content appearing more prominently within

responses of the residential group included regret and finding happiness regardless of wealth.

47

Data Analyses for Research Question Three

Do themes found in adolescent lyric analysis responses and songwriting lyrics parallel

therapeutic goals of this population?

Because of the nature of this research question, it is more appropriately addressed in the

discussion chapter that follows.

48

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the thematic content and word

usage in lyric analysis responses and songwriting lyrics of at-risk adolescents from community

and residential settings. Content analysis revealed a focus on themes within the responses of the

residential group that was not found in the community group. These themes were: regret, loss of

control, feeling restrained, and finding happiness regardless of wealth. Conversely, song lyric

lines of the community group contained more thematic content in the categories of ‘negative

experiences’ and ‘social/peers.’ Significant differences were also found in the lyric analysis

responses of the at-risk groups. Word use of the community group was significantly greater than

the residential group in two categories – ‘total pronouns’ and ‘impersonal pronouns.’ Striking

similarities between the at-risk groups were found in their use of feeling words, their music

preferences, and the thematic category of ‘family’ in their lyric analyses and songwriting lyrics.

Relationship to Extant Literature

Results of the present study both corroborate and refute previous music therapy studies

regarding the thematic content of client song lyrics. Robb and Ebberts (2003) found that all

pediatric patients in the music condition of their study, due to their unique medical condition,

wrote songs about themselves and their cancer. Additionally, positive coping strategies were

well-represented in the patients’ song lyrics. Similar to Robb and Ebberts’ findings, both groups

in the present study wrote songs about their lives and current issues they were facing. Coping

strategies also appeared frequently in song lyrics of the present study, accounting for 14% and

10.7% of lyric lines written by participants from the residential and community settings

respectively. Robb and Ebberts also found that most song lyrics contained themes that were

overwhelmingly positive and represented individual, family, and social protective factors of

participants. Similarly, Roscoe et al. (1985) found that songwriting was the only form of written

expression within which high school students primarily expressed positive emotions, such as

happiness, joy, and contentment. However, in the present study, thematic material of song lyrics

was not exceedingly positive. Instead, participants expressed a variety of both positive and

negative content. In previous studies, some of the most prevalent themes found in song lyrics

written by palliative care patients and clients with traumatic brain injury included compliments

49

and messages to friends, family, and caretakers (Baker et al., 2005; O’Callaghan, 1996). With

one notable exception, song lyrics written by participants in the present study included no

messages or compliments to other people. Alternatively, their lyrics were focused intently on

personal experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

Limitations of the Present Study

Several factors may have influenced the results of this study. Due to slow turnover of

residents at the residential facility, the sample size was small. As the songwriting phase of this

study was conducted with a group and not individuals, the total number of songs written by

participants was less than optimal. Additionally, this study was required to fit into each facility’s

schedule. As a result, it was necessary for the songwriting phase of this study to take place over

the course of a single session. This limited time resulted in concise songs which consisted of

only one or two verses and a chorus. Multiple sessions, or at least a lengthier single session,

would have provided the opportunity to produce additional verses for each song.

Every attempt was made by the researcher to keep conditions as controlled as possible

during the course of this study. Realistically, however, external variables still existed. Programs

serving at-risk adolescents are forced to remain flexible due to the unpredictability of adolescent

behavior, staffing shortages, and the varying schedules of individuals being served. As a result,

many factors affecting this study were out of the researcher’s control. For instance, staff

members were not available to assist the researcher during all sessions. The setting often

changed depending on which rooms were available within each facility on a given day. Loud

noises caused by other activities being conducted in the facility and interruptions due to other

individuals walking into the room were common distractions while the study was being

conducted. Occasionally, time allowed for all phases of the study to be conducted in succession,

but often the songwriting phase had to be conducted on a separate day.

Suggestions for Future Research

Replications of this study might be conducted using a larger sample size. Word count

software programs such as LIWC are more effective with greater bodies of text. Additionally,

researchers may be able to identify consistencies in thematic material more accurately with a

larger sample size. Collecting a greater number of songs produced by participants is also

recommended. Songs could be written individually instead of in a group setting in order to

generate more song lyrics within the same sample size. Another solution is to collect multiple

50

songs from each participant over an extended period of time, as in studies by O’Callaghan (1996)

and Baker et al. (2005). Replications of this study could also be conducted with participants in

residential facilities at other points on the continuum of care. In this study, participants generally

had been at the facility for fewer than two weeks and were expected to return to their home

environment in the near future. Song lyrics and lyric analysis responses of adolescents residing

in long-term treatment facilities or foster care may contain different thematic material or word

use trends than that which was found in this study.

Word usage in song lyrics and lyric analysis responses warrants further investigation than

was possible in this study. The existing body of literature on linguistic analysis suggests that

much can be learned through examination of language use (Chung & Pennebaker, 2007;

Pennebaker, Mehl, & Niederhoffer, 2003). Although content analysis computer software

programs have their limitations, these programs generally eliminate the concern of reader biases

and allow large bodies of texts to be analyzed quickly and objectively. In this study, impersonal

pronoun use of participants from the community setting was significantly greater than that of

participants from the residential setting. Although some discussion regarding the implications of

this difference is mentioned below, much has yet to be learned on this subject. Would

differences in other categories of word use (i.e. affective processes, social processes, cognitive

processes) become apparent within a larger sample size or among participants from different

residential settings? What are the implications of these differences and how might they influence

therapeutic practice?

Finally, future researchers might compare thematic content and word use found within

music therapy interventions to that found in other therapeutic mediums, such as typical

adolescent group therapy sessions. In this fashion, Cordobes (1997) conducted a content

analysis of song lyrics and participant discussions to identify the extent to which HIV-

Seropositive adult patients focused on therapeutic issues in group songwriting and other

therapeutic conditions. A similar design could be implemented with adolescent populations.

Discussion

A number of themes relevant to therapeutic objectives of at-risk adolescents emerged

within the content analysis employed in this study. Discussion of the following thematic

categories draws on combined data from participant song lyrics and lyric analysis responses.

51

Family. Due to the recent instability and volatility of home life experienced by many

participants from the residential facility, one might assume that negative perceptions of family

would be present in the data collected from these individuals. However, no such views were

found within song lyrics or lyric analysis responses of the residential group. Thematic material

regarding family was overwhelmingly positive within both groups of participants. The lyrics of

“Hey Mama” implicitly discuss positive experiences between the musical artist and his mother.

These lyrics could potentially be seen as a trigger of positive responses in participants.

However, in Questions 1, 3, and 5, participants typically went beyond stating that the song’s

message was a positive portrayal of the musical artist’s mother, and regularly applied these

insights to their own family relationships. Song lyrics written by participants were thematically

similar. The following song excerpt of participants from the residential setting exemplifies the

perception of family which emerged in this study:

Mama, I got a couple things to say to you.

It’s coming from my heart, so you know it’s true.

About how I act, about what I do.

Yes mama, you know, I love you.

Coping skills. Fourteen percent of lyric lines from the residential group and 10.7% from

the community group described coping strategies. It should be noted that participants appeared

to be cognizant of the negative ramifications of some lyric lines that were coded into the

‘negative coping skills’ category. For instance, one lyric line written by participants from the

residential setting reads, “Even if you run away, there your problems will remain.” Cognitively

processing problems and analyzing potential solutions are important catalysts for therapeutic

change. The present study indicates that songwriting may promote this therapeutic process.

Regret. The theme of regret appeared exclusively in song lyrics (10% of lyric lines) and

lyric analysis responses (Question 3, “Hey Mama”, 20% of participant responses) of participants

from the residential setting. Most of this regret was focused on recent decisions made and

actions taken that negatively affected participants’ family members. Both of these music therapy

interventions appear to have provided these adolescents an opportunity to process their past

actions and the repercussions of those actions.

Loss of control or feeling restrained. The thematic category ‘loss of control or feeling

restrained’ comprised 18% of lyric lines written by the residential group and 2.2% written by the

52

community group. Adolescents often experience a sense of helplessness and loss of control

when living in a residential setting (James,1987, 1988). James (1987, 1988) found that

participation in lyric analysis interventions may be effective in decreasing this sense of

helplessness and increasing a locus of control among adolescents.

Wealth is not a requirement for happiness. A number of thematic categories within lyric

analysis responses to the song “There’s Hope” expressed the idea that wealth is not a

requirement for happiness. In responses to questions regarding “There’s Hope,” this theme

appeared 20 times in the residential group and 11 times in the community group. According to

administrators from each facility, both groups consisted primarily of participants with low

socioeconomic status. This theme could have been particularly meaningful to participants at the

residential setting, who not only were from families bearing a low socioeconomic status, but

were residing at a facility where they currently had very little to call their own.

Negative experiences. Songs written by the community group contained a greater

percentage of lyric lines in the ‘negative experiences’ category (21.7%) than songs written by the

residential group (4.0%). It may be that both groups expressed a similar amount of negative

experiences, but expression of negative experiences was specific enough in the residential group

to be coded in the ‘regret’ and ‘loss of control or feeling restrained’ categories. Conversely,

negative experiences expressed by the community group covered a wide variety of content,

including disappointment, problems at school, boredom, and difficulties of life as a teenager.

Social/Peers. Songs written by participants from the community setting contained a

greater percentage of lyric lines in the ‘social/peers’ category (19.6%) than songs written by

participants from the residential setting (4.0%). Percentage of word usage in the ‘social

processes’ category was also greater among the community group (13.49% vs. 9.48% within

songwriting lyrics and 18.74% vs. 15.69% within lyric analysis responses). These differences

may be affected by the participants’ environments. Songs written by participants from the

residential facility generally focused on recent events leading up to their arrival at the facility,

descriptions and feelings about life at the facility, and hopes or wishes for leaving the facility.

Because of the short-term nature of this residential facility, residents may have had little

opportunity to develop relationships with other residents. Thus, a stable peer social life may not

have been present in their current situation. On the other hand, adolescents from the community

setting participated in an after-school environment with long-term peers, many of whom

53

undoubtedly played a role in the participants’ lives outside of the after-school program. This

study may indicate, then, that participant lyric analysis responses and song lyrics are influenced

by the current social framework of the adolescents’ lives.

Total and impersonal pronoun usage. Participants from the community setting used a

significantly greater percentage of words than participants from the residential setting in the

‘total pronoun’ and ‘impersonal pronoun’ categories within lyric analysis responses. The greater

overall use of pronouns among participants from the community setting appears to be primarily a

result of the greater use of impersonal pronouns among the same group. Participants from the

community setting also used considerably more impersonal pronouns than participants from the

residential group in their song lyrics (6.08% vs. 3.49%). When responding to lyric analysis

questions, participants may use a variety of types of pronouns. For instance, in response to the

question, “What did the song make you think about?” an individual may use 3

rd

person singular

pronouns (“The artist is proud of his mom…”), 2

nd

person pronouns (“You should be proud of

your mom…”), impersonal pronouns (“Everybody should be proud of their mom…”), or 1

st

person singular pronouns (“I am proud of my mom…” or “I am not proud of my mom…”).

One of the goals of lyric analyses is to develop insight into personal experiences and

issues (Mark, 1986). A smaller percentage of responses using impersonal pronouns could

indicate that an individual is relating the song to him or herself more than to others, and thus the

intervention is effective at promoting self awareness. As word usage of the residential group

contained significantly fewer impersonal pronouns, it is possible that these participants were

responding to the lyric analysis questions in such a manner. Perhaps participants from the

residential setting related more to the songs personally, or were more willing to discuss songs in

direct relation to themselves. On the other hand, adolescents from the residential setting were

receiving more therapy than adolescents from the community setting and may have been

accustomed to talking about themselves in the context of therapeutic interventions. However,

although a significant difference in the use of impersonal pronouns emerged, the use of 1

st

person

singular pronouns between groups was markedly similar (t = .12, P = .91). Thus, data from the

present study are not conclusive enough to make solid assumptions based on pronoun usage as

differences in pronoun use may be a result of other factors.

The following discussion is in relation to data collected from responses to specific lyric

analysis questions.

54

Question 2: What feelings does the song bring to mind? Results indicated that

participants from the two groups used equivalently more positive than negative feeling words in

their responses to this question. Content analysis of word usage with the LIWC software

indicated similar trends within lyric analysis responses for all five questions combined. Few

participants used actual feeling words in response to this question, and those that did used simple

feeling words such as ‘happy’, ‘love’, and ‘sad’. Behrens (1988) states that being able to

identify and verbally label emotions is one of the key steps to healthy, successful expression of

feelings. The results of this study indicate that adolescents from both groups were either unable

or unwilling to label emotions and communicate with feeling words when prompted. With the

assistance of a music therapist, songwriting and lyric analysis interventions could potentially be

used to target this deficiency and promote development of a vocabulary of emotion words.

Development of this vocabulary, in turn, may aid adolescents in the area of healthy self-

expression – a key objective for many individuals in this population.

Question 4: Did you like the song? Why or why not? Researchers often assert that a

powerful connection exists between adolescents and their preferred music (Austin, 2007; Mark,

1988; McFerran-Skewes, 2004). Likewise, proponents of Rap and Hip-Hop Therapy frequently

describe the power of using culturally appropriate music with at-risk adolescents (DeCarlo &

Hockman, 2003; Elligan, 2004; Tyson, 2003). In the present study, over 70% of participants

from both groups responded that they liked each of the songs because of the lyrics, while less

than 20% from each group identified the artist or style of music as a reason for approving or

disapproving of each song. It should be noted that the songs used songs were selected from

genres (rap and R&B) that were expected to be preferred by adolescents at these particular

programs. If a song from a substantially different musical genre (i.e. country) were used,

responses to this question may have been very different. However, the present study may

indicate that if song lyrics are selected carefully and presented correctly, adolescents may be

open to songs from genres outside of their immediate preference during music therapy sessions.

Expanding the potential repertoire of songs to use with an adolescent population may help music

therapists in finding songs to address the unique and diverse needs of adolescent individuals.

Question 5: Select two lyric lines from the song which are most meaningful to you.

Which lines did you choose and why? Lyric analyses are often described in the music therapy

literature as safe, non-threatening interventions (Bailey, 1984; Butler, 1966; Grocke & Wigram,

55

2007; Heimlich, 1983). Clients are able to express themselves through songs by projecting their

personal thoughts and feelings onto song lyrics without feeling vulnerable. Responses to

Question 5 support these findings. Asking participants to select specific lines allowed them an

opportunity to identify portions of a song which were especially important to them. Jones (2005)

used a similar lyric analysis technique with adults with chemical dependency. In the present

study, participants from both groups openly discussed personal difficulties, relationships, and

experiences related to their selected lyric lines. Furthermore, a sense of excitement and purpose,

not resistance, accompanied the majority of participants’ explanations.

Implications for Practice

Adolescents are often resistant to verbal psychotherapy (Austin, 2007; Berkovitz, 1995).

A creative, culturally-appropriate therapeutic approach may be more effective than traditional

verbal therapy at addressing the needs of at-risk adolescents (Henderson & Gladding, 1998;

Tyson & Baffour, 2004). In the present study, songwriting and lyric analysis interventions

appeared to have provided at-risk adolescents the opportunity to discuss issues relevant to

therapeutic objectives. Themes of regret, loss of control, and feelings of restraint were found

almost exclusively among participants from the residential setting, while thematic content

regarding peer groups and general negative experiences was more prevalent among participants

from the community setting. Coping skills appeared frequently within song lyrics of both

groups. All of these themes represent items of importance to these adolescent populations.

Results of the present study may indicate that songwriting and lyric analysis interventions

encourage adolescents to express issues of importance (both positive and negative in nature) in a

creative and productive manner. Upon surfacing, these thoughts and feelings may be processed

effectively within a therapeutic setting. These findings suggest that music therapy can be

appropriately implemented as the primary or as a complimentary therapy for at-risk youth in

community and residential settings.

Developing and maintaining positive family relationships is one of the primary goals at

adolescent residential facilities (Farmer, Mustillo, Burns, & Holden, 2008; Lyman & Barry,

2006). Two complications of long-term residential facilities for adolescents include family

disengagement and difficulty re-entering the family upon discharge (Lyman & Barry, 2006). In

relation to family, thematic content of adolescent song lyrics and lyric analysis responses in the

present study was consistently positive. These results indicate that songwriting and lyric analysis

56

interventions may be conducive to fostering positive family relationships. Through direction and

expansion upon these positive familial themes, music therapists could use these interventions

with adolescents to provide the basis for positive family interactions.

Many distinct differences have been identified between the song lyrics and lyric analysis

responses of adolescents from residential and community settings in the present study. These

differences reflect the specific needs of adolescents at different points on the continuum of

residential treatment. These data may assist music therapists working in these settings to

understand the responses and song lyrics of clients within therapy. However, despite the unique

challenges facing adolescents receiving treatment in various residential settings, findings from

the present study indicate that adolescents from residential and community settings share the

same enthusiasm for music. No difference in positive or negative emotional processes in word

usage or prevalence of overall positive or negative themes in song lyrics was found. No

additional resistance or negativity towards music therapy interventions was apparent within

either group. Results of the current study indicate that, regardless of present living environment,

adolescents are typically willing to engage in therapeutic discourse through music.

Conclusions

In the present study, content analysis of themes and word usage in song lyrics and lyric

analysis responses revealed a greater focus on regret, loss of control, feeling restrained, and

finding happiness regardless of wealth among adolescents living in a residential setting, and a

greater focus on general negative experiences and peer groups among adolescents residing in a

typical living situation. Other themes and trends in word use were equally represented among

these two groups, including coping skills, family, and emotion word usage. Findings of the

present study indicate that songwriting and lyric analysis interventions promote a focus on

thematic content relevant to the therapeutic objectives of at-risk adolescent populations. These

findings support past research which indicates that songwriting interventions assist clients in

making therapeutic progress by promoting the disclosure and processing of relevant topics.

Songwriting and lyric analyses can be valuable therapeutic tools for music therapists when

working with at-risk adolescents in community and residential settings.

57

APPENDIX A

SONG LYRICS FOR LYRIC ANALYSES

58

There’s Hope

India.Arie

V e r se 1 :

Back when I had a lit tle I t hought t hat I needed a lot

A litt le was over rat ed, but a lot was a lit tle t oo com plicated

You see zero didn't satisfy m e, a m illion didn't m ake m e happy

That 's when I learned a lesson, that it's all about your percept ion

Hey, are you a pauper or a superstar, so you act, so you feel, so you are

I t ain't about t he size of your car, it ’s about the size of the fait h in your heart

Ch or u s:

Ther e's hope

I t doesn't cost a t hing t o sm ile

You don 't ha ve t o pay t o laugh

You be tt er t ha nk God for t ha t

Ther e’s hope

I t doesn’t cost a t hing t o sm ile

You don ’t have t o pa y to la ugh

You be tt er t ha nk God for t ha t

V e r se 2 :

Off in the back count ry of Brazil, I m et a young brother t hat m ade m e feel

That I could accom plish anyt hing, you see j ust like m e he want ed t o sing

He had no windows and no doors, he lived a sim ple life and was ext rem ely poor

On t op of all of t hat he had no eye sight ,

but t hat didn't keep him from seeing t he light

He said, “ what 's it like in t he USA,” and all I did was com plain

He said “ liv ing here is paradise,” he taught m e paradise is in your m ind

Ba ck t o Ch o r u s

59

Every tim e I t urn on the T.V., som ebody's act ing crazy

I f you let it , it w ill drive you crazy, but I 'm t akin' back m y pow er t oday

Gas prices they j ust keep on rising, t he governm ent t hey keep on lying

But we gott a keep on surviving, keep living our t rut h and do the best we can do

Ba ck t o Ch o r u s

St and up for your rights

Keep shining your light

And show t he w orld your sm ile

St and up for your rights

Keep shining your light

And show t he w orld your sm ile

Ba ck t o Ch o r u s

60

Hey Mama

Kanye West

Ch or u s:

He y Mam a , I w a nna scre am so loud for you, cau se I 'm so pr oud of you

Let m e te ll you w hat I 'm a bout t o do

I k now I a ct a fool but , I prom ise you I 'm going ba ck t o school

I a ppr e ciat e w ha t you a llow e d for m e

I j ust w a nt you t o be proud of m e

V e r se 1 :

I wanna t ell t he whole world about a friend of m ine

This lit tle light of m ine, I 'm finna let it shine

I 'm finna t ake y’all back t o them bet t er t im es

I 'm finna talk about m y m am a if y’all don't m ind

I was t hree years old, when you and I m oved t o the Chi

Lat e Decem ber, harsh winter gave m e a cold

You fixed m e up som ething that was good for m y soul

Fam ous hom em ade chicken soup, can I have another bowl?

You work late nights j ust t o keep on the lights

Mom m y got m e t raining wheels so I could keep on m y bike

And you would give m e anything in t his world

Michael Jackson leat her and a glove, but didn't give m e no curl

And you never put no m an over m e

And I love you for t hat m om m y can’t you see?

Seven years old, caught you with t ears in your eyes

Cause a boy cheat ing, t elling you lies, t hen I start ed t o cry

As we knelt on t he kitchen floor

I said m om m y I ’m a love you till you don't hurt no m ore

And when I 'm older, you ain’t got ta work no m ore

And I ’m a get you that m ansion t hat we couldn't afford

See you're, unbreakable, unm ist akable

Highly capable, lady t hat 's m aking loot

A living legend t oo, j ust look at w hat heaven do

Send us an angel, and I t hank you

Ba ck t o Ch o r u s

61

V e r se 2

Forrest Gum p m am a said, life is like a box of chocolat es

My m am a told m e go t o school, get your doct orat e

Som ething t o fall back on, you could profit wit h

But st ill support ed m e when I did the opposit e

Now I feel like it 's t hings I gott a get

Things I got ta do, j ust t o prove t o you

You was get ting t hrough, can t he choir please

Give m e a verse of "You Are So Beautiful To Me"

Can't you see, you're like a book of poetry

Maya Angelou, Nikk i Giovanni, t urn one page and there's m y m om m y

Com e on m om m y j ust dance wit h m e, let t he whole world see your dancing feet

Now when I say “ Hey,” y’all say “ Mam a,” now everybody answ er m e

Ba ck t o Ch o r u s

V e r se 3

I guess it all depends t hough, if m y ends low

Second t hey get up you gonna get t hat Benzo

Tint t he windows, ride around the cit y and let your friends know

Tell your j ob you got t a fake t hem out

Since you brought m e in t his world, let m e t ake you out

To a restaurant, upper echelon

I ’m a get you a Jag, what ever else you want

Just t ell m e what kind of S- Type Donda West like?

Tell m e the perfect color so I m ake it j ust right

I t don't got ta be Mot her's Day, or your birt hday

For m e t o just call and say

He y Mam a , I w a nna scre am so loud for you, cau se I 'm so pr oud of you

Let m e te ll you w hat I 'm a bout t o do

You know I love you so and I ’d neve r let you go

I w rot e t h is song j ust so you know

N o m at te r w h er e you go, m y love is t rue

62

APPENDIX B

LYRIC ANALYSIS INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

63

Lyric Analysis Interview Questions

1. What does the song say about life?

2. What feelings does the song bring to mind?

3. What did the song make you think about?

4. Did you like the song? Why or why not?

5. Select two lyric lines from the song which are most meaningful to

you. Place a checkmark next to the lines. Which lines did you

choose and why?

64

APPENDIX C

PARTICIPANT-COMPOSED SONG LYRICS

65

Appendix C1: Song Lyrics Written by Participants from the Residential Setting

Song One

Sometimes it’s boring, sometimes it’s fun

I’m not living my life the way it’s supposed to be done

I’m stuck in here, I want to shout

I don’t want to do this no more, I want out

Let me be free, freer than ever

If you let me out, I swear I’ll do better

Take me away, I want out

Take me away, this is not my route (x2)

Song Two

I walk up in the club, cause I’m V.I.P.

The ladies come running cause they know they love me

I walk on stage with my guitar

I got a lot of chicks running to my car

My wicks do tricks when I hit my scissor kicks

People running on stage so my band can sign their sticks

But instead of signing sticks they were looking at my wicks

I walk up in the club, cause I’m V.I.P.

The ladies come running cause they know they love me

Song Three

Even if you run away, there your problems will remain

Causing you many tears, causing you much pain

Making you scared, confused, insecure with the blues

Feeling like your life is through, not a clue what to do

If you run away you got no where to stay

And when you come back the problem’s there the next day

Facing your problems can be safe, putting you in a better place

Being at C-C-Y-S, getting you up out this mess

Striving to be the best, never settling for less

If you run away you got no where to stay

And when you come back the problem’s there the next day

Have a great and wonderful CCYS day!

66

Song Four

Mama, I got a couple things to say to you

It’s coming from my heart, so you know it’s true

About how I act, about what I do

Yes mama, you know, I love you

If I could change my past

I would make every decision like it was my last

I shouldn’t have got up and walked

When my mama tried to talk

If I could move on

I would make wiser decisions

I would keep good friends close

And to the bad friends – Adios

Mama, I got a couple things to say to you

It’s coming from my heart, so you know it’s true

About how I act, about what I do

Yes mama, you know, I love you

Song Five

Hated by many, confronted by none

Wanna go home to see my hon’

We could’ve been having fun

Hated by many, confronted by none

Got put in here yesterday

Don’t know how long I can stay

I want to get out of here now

Wish I could but I don’t know how

I miss so many things from home

Like my TV, CDs and cell phone

When I get back to the things I miss

Might even get my second kiss

Hated by many, confronted by none

Wanna go home to see my hon’

We could’ve been having fun

Hated by many, confronted by none

67

Appendix C2: Song Lyrics Written by Participants from the Community Setting

Song Six

It’s my life

And I’ma live it right (x2)

You know it’s hard out here for us

Stupid boyfriends making you cuss

Living this double life is hard

Trying to make money playing cards

You know it sucks living this hard life

Making D’s and F’s that ain’t right

Parents want you to be perfect

But it’s my life and it ain’t worth it

I’m just me, so you have to deal with me, ya dig?

It’s my life

And I’ma live it right (x2)

Song Seven

Heartbreak and death makes me sad

Sometimes it’s hard, sometimes it’s bad

Losing my grandma was hard on my mama

But I gotta keep my life from being in trauma

All about me, there’s life, there’s school

There’s joy, my home, those childhood moments

I don’t like school, sometimes it’s hard

When we don’t have homework it seems fine

But when we do have homework, it’s like a barrier in our way

So we can’t go outside and play

My childhood was so much fun

I used to get money from my grandma’s son

I used to yell and scream and cry like a baby

Until old sweet grandma would cheer me up

All about me, there’s life, there’s school

There’s joy, my home, those childhood moments

68

Song Eight

Sometimes you have sad moments in your life

Boyfriend beat me up, now he wants me to be his wife

We’re always fighting and I wonder where’s the love?

I just get on my knees and pray to the man above

Things are not much different with my family

Too much drama and I wonder if I should leave

My mama yelling out, “Baby don’t, baby please”

“Baby please…”

How you going to eat, where you going to sleep

When you living out on those streets. (x2)

Song Nine

Some boys and girls are entertaining

Some boys and girls are not

Some boys are funny and some girls are hot

Some of them I like them a lot

Lots of people say I have a passion

And for me, it’s all about fashion

When me and my homies get together

We play video games in any kind of weather

I like having fun, I like to chill

When it comes down, I’m always real

When I’m spending money or with my friends

Happy and excited is how I feel

69

APPENDIX D

INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL AND CONSENT FORMS

70

71

72

73

74

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92

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Thomas J. Petterson

Education

♦ Bachelor of Music in Piano Performance – Summa Cum Laude,

Concordia College, Moorhead, MN

August 2001 -

May 2005

Related Experience

♦ Healing Hearts

– Tallahassee, FL

Music Therapist

August 2007 –

February 2008

♦ Florida State Hospital – Chattahoochee, FL

Music Therapy Intern

January 2007 –

July 2007

♦ Music Lessons Express – Tallahassee, FL

Music Instructor

August 2006 –

♦ College of Music, Florida State University – Tallahassee, FL

Graduate Teaching Assistant

August 2005 –

December 2006

♦ Leon Advocacy and Resource Center – Tallahassee, FL

Group Home Caretaker

May 2006 –

October 2006

♦ Friendship, Inc. – Fargo, ND

Group Home Caretaker

June 2004 –

August 2005

♦ Private Piano Instructor

June 2002 –

Professional Certifications

♦ Music Therapist, Board-Certified (MT-BC) – National

accreditation for music therapy.

August 2007

♦ Certified NICU-MT – Specialized music therapy training in a

neonatal intensive care unit.

October 2007