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CAMILLA A. HRDY & CHRISTOPHER B. SEAMAN
abstract.
the yale law journal
authors.
Yale Law Journal
beyond trade secrecy
article contents
introduction
i. confidentiality agreements beyond trade secrecy
ii. legal treatment of confidentiality agreements beyond trade secrecy
iii. confidentiality agreements in practice
the yale law journal
iv.
changing the default rule
conclusion
beyond trade secrecy
introduction
1. See, e.g. Trade Secrecy and Common Law Confidentiality: The Problem of
Multiple Regimes in T
HE LAW AND THEORY OF TRADE SECRECY
2. See The DTSA at One: An Empirical Study of the
First Year of Litigation Under the Defend Trade Secrets Act W
AKE FOREST L. REV
3
See, e.g.
see also
U
NIF. TRADE SECRETS ACT UNIF. L.
COMM’N
To ward a
Federal Jurisprudence of Trade Secret Law B
ERKELEY TECH. L.J.
supra
A (Mostly)
Legislative History of the Defend Trade Secrets Act of 2016 L
AW LIBR. J.
4. See A Contract by Any Other Name Is Still a Contract: Examining the Eec-
tiveness of Trade Secret Clauses to Protect Databases I
DEA
The Trade Secret-Contract Interface I
OWA L. REV
5 Noncompetes and Other Post-Employment Restraints on Competition:
Empirical Evidence from Trade Secret Litigation H
ASTINGS L.J.
6. Id.
the yale law journal
7. CAL. BUS. PROF. CODE
8
Restrictive Covenants, Employee Training, and the Limits of Transaction-Cost Analysis
I
ND. L.J.
9
See The Rule of Reason F
LA. L. REV.
see also The Antitrust Challenge to Covenants Not to Compete in
Employment Contracts A
NTITRUST L.J.
.
10. See TIMOTHY P. GLYNN, CHARLES A. SULLIVAN RACHEL S. ARNOW-RICHMAN, EMPLOYMENT
LAW: PRIVATE ORDERING AND ITS LIMITATIONS 475-502 infra
11. See, e.g. Employee Agreements Not to Compete HARV. L. REV.
The Legal Infrastructure of High Te chnology Industrial Districts: Silicon Valley,
Route 128, and Covenants Not to Compete N.Y.U.
L. REV.
Bargaining for Loyalty in the Information Age: A Reconsideration of the Role of Substantive
Fairness in Enforcing Employee Noncompetes O
R. L. REV.
The New Psychological Contract: Implications of the Changing Workplace for Labor and Employ-
ment Law UCLA
L. REV. Choice of Law
and Employee Restrictive Covenants: An American Perspective C
OMP. LAB. L. POL’Y J.
The Wrong To ol for the Job: The IP Problem with Noncompetition Agree-
ments W
M. MARY L. REV The New Cognitive Property: Human
Capital Law and the Reach of Intellectual Property T
EX. L. REV
An Empirical Analysis of Noncompetition
Clauses and Other Restrictive Postemployment Covenants V
AND. L. REV.
The Case for Noncompetes U.
CHI. L. REV
supra see also Poaching A
M. U. L. REV
Questioning the
Employee Non-Solicitation Covenant L
OY. L.A. L. REV.
12
See infra
beyond trade secrecy
13. ELIZABETH A. ROWE SHARON K. SANDEEN, TRADE SECRET LAW: CASES AND MATERIALS 357-
61
( 2021); PETER S. MENELL, ROBERT P. MERGES, MARK A. LEMLEY SHYAMKRISHNA
BALGANESH, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN THE NEW TECHNOLOGICAL AGE: 2023, 1 PERSPEC-
TIVES
, TRADE SECRETS PATENTS 115-16 (2023); SHARON K. SANDEEN DAVID S. LEVINE, IN-
FORMATION
LAW, GOVERNANCE, AND CYBERSECURITY see also
Bridging the “Trade Secret” Gap: Protecting “Confidential Information” Not Rising to the Level of
Trade Secrets L
OY. U. CHI. L.J.
14. See Knowledge Pays: Reversing Information Flows and the Future of Pay Equity,
C
OLUM. L. REV
see
also Employment Agreements: Employers Need to
Pay Attention to Growing Government Activism IPW
ATCHDOG
15. See, e.g. supra see also
Employment Restrictions on Resource Transferability and
Value Appropriation from Employees
When Trade Secrets Become Shackles: Fairness and the Inevitable
Disclosure Doctrine T
UL. J. TECH. INTELL. PROP.
16. See, e.g. The New Enforcement Regime: Revisiting the Law of Employee
Competition (and the Scholarship of Professor Charles Sullivan) with 2020 Vision S
ETON HALL
L. REV
the yale law journal
17 supra see also GLYNN, SULLIVAN ARNOW-RICH-
MAN
, supra
supra
Banning Noncompetes in Virginia U.
RICH. L. REV
18. See infra
19. See infra
20
M
ASS. GEN. LAWS
21. See supra
see also infra
22. See
Supporting Market Accountability, Workplace Equity, and Fair Competition by Reining in
Non-Disclosure Agreements D
AY ONE PROJECT
see also Trade Secrets as Property: Theory
and Consequences J.
INTELL. PROP. L.
Reforming the
Law of Proprietary Informati0n D
UKE L.J.
Can Mere Confidential Infor-
mation Be Legally Protected? N.Y.
L.J. (
Limitations upon the
Enforceability of an Employee’s Covenant Not to Disclose and Not to Use Confidential Business In-
formation without Authorization UCLA
J.L. TECH.
beyond trade secrecy
Business Information and Non-
disclosure Agreements: A Public Policy Framework N
W. U. L. REV.
see also , Nonpublic
Information and California Tort Law: A Proposal for Harmonizing California’s Employee Mobility
and Intellectual Property Regimes Under the Uniform Trade Secrets Act UCLA
J.L. TECH
23. See, e.g. Abandoning Trade Secrets STAN. L. REV
24. See as modified on
denial of reh’g
25. Id. Brown v. TGS Mgmt. Co.
26. See infra
27. See infra
28
the yale law journal
use
29. Id.
30. See, e.g.
31 Enforceability TBD: From Status to Contract in Intellectual Property Law B.U. L.
REV see also supra
32. See infra
33. See infra
beyond trade secrecy
34. See infra
35. See infra
36. See infra
37. See infra
38. See, e.g. supra
, supra
39. See infra
40. See infra
41
See infra
the yale law journal
42. See infra
43
FTC Expected to Vote in 2024 on Rule to Ban Noncompete Clauses B
LOOM-
BERG
L.
The Chamber of Commerce Will Fight the FTC W
ALL ST. J.
See infra
44
See infra
See, e.g. infra
45. See infra
beyond trade secrecy
46
See infra
the yale law journal
i. confidentiality agreements beyond trade secrecy
A. Confidentiality Agreements Generally
47
H
EATHER MEEKER, A PRIMER ON INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LICENSING 68-69(
2004); JAMES H. POOLEY, SECRETS: MANAGING INFORMATION ASSETS IN THE AGE OF CYBER-
ESPIONAGE
105-20, 261-64 (2015); R. MARK HALLIGAN RICHARD F. WEYAND, TRADE SECRETS
ASSET MANAGEMENT: A GUIDE TO INFORMATION ASSET MANAGEMENT INCLUDING RICO AND
BLOCKCHAIN 278 (2018); Don’t Lose Your Licensable IP,
NDAs and Zero Knowledge Proofs L
ICENSING J.
48
See infra
beyond trade secrecy
two
49. POOLEY supra supra
50. See, e.g. supra see also Te rms of Use
M
INN. L. REV
But see Memorizing Trade Secrets U.
RICH. L.
REV
51 supra
52 supra
53 supra see also supra
54. See, e.g. supra
supra
55. See, e.g. RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF UNFAIR COMPETITION AM. L. INST.
the yale law journal
and
and
56
57. See Should Dissimilar Uses of Trade Secrets Be Actionable? U. PA. L. REV.
ONLINE not
58
R
ESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF UNFAIR COMPETITION AM. L. INST. But see
The Law of Negative Knowledge: A Critique T
EX. INTELL. PROP. L.J.
59 How Can a Departing Employee Misappropriate Their Own Creative Out-
puts? V
ILL. L. REV.
supra
60
See, e.g.
see also
U
NIF. L. COMM’N
beyond trade secrecy
B. The Interaction Between Confidentiality Agreements and Trade Secrecy
61. See, e.g. ROGER M. MILGRIM ERIC E. BENSEN, MILGRIM ON TRADE SECRETS § 4.01
The Contract in the Trade
Secret Ballroom—A Forgotten Dance Partner? T
EX. INTELL. PROP. L.J
62
See U
NIF. L. COMM’N
63. See MILGRIM BENSEN, supra § 1.09
64
See, e.g.
But see This American Life: Original Recipe N
AT’L PUB. RADIO,
the yale law journal
giving rise to a duty to maintain the secrecy or
limit the use of the trade secret
03:33
65
66
But see The Paradox of Source Code Secrecy C
ORNELL L. REV.
67. See, e.g.
68
Id.
See Out of Thin Air: Trade Secrets, Cybersecurity, and
the Wrongful Acquisition Tort M
INN. J.L. SCI. TECH.
cf.
69
See generally R
ESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF UNFAIR COMPETITION AM. L. INST.
beyond trade secrecy
70. See The Surprising Virtues of Treating Trade Secrets as IP Rights STAN. L.
REV.
Why Do We Have Trade Secrets? M
ARQ. INTELL. PROP. L.
REV.
see also A Typology of Disclosure,
A
KRON L. REV.
71 See
Trade Secret Law and Information Development Incentives in T
HE LAW AND THE-
ORY OF
TRADE SECRECY: A HANDBOOK OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH 152 (
,
2011)
72 see infra can
73 See
74 supra supra
the yale law journal
contracts
75 See UNIF. L. COMM’N
76. See supra
77. But see A New Look at Trade Secret Law: Doctrine in Search of Justification
C
ALIF. L. REV
78. See
See also supra
79. See Don’t Abolish Employee Noncompete Agreements WAKE FOREST L.REV.
see also supra
80. See supra
see also
Trade Secret Precautions, Possession, and Notice H
ASTINGS L.J.
beyond trade secrecy
beyond trade secrecy
C. How and Why Confidentiality Agreements Can Go Beyond Trade Secrecy
81
See supra supra
supra
82 See
U
NIF. L. COMM’N
83
See supra
84. See MENELL, MERGES, LEMLEY BALGANESH supra
See generally Trade
Secret Subject Matter H
AMLINE L. REV.
85
see also
U
NIF. L. COMM’N
86 UNIF. L. COMM’N See infra
.
87 UNIF. L. COMM’N See generally
The Contours of American Trade Secret Law: What Is and What Isn’t Protectable
as a Trade Secret SMU
SCI. TECH. L. REV The Contours of
American Trade Secret Law
The Contract Exception to the Uniform Trade Secrets Act and Its Implications
for the Federal Defend Trade Secrets Act S
ANTA CLARA HIGH TECH. L.J.
Contract Exception
the yale law journal
88. See
89 UNIF. L. COMM’N
90. See The Value in Secrecy FORDHAM L. REV
91
see also The General Knowledge, Skill, and Experience Par-
adox B.C.
L. REV.
Skill or Secret?—The Line Between Trade Secrets and Employee
General Skills and Knowledge N.Y.U.
J.L. BUS.
R
ESTATEMENT
(THIRD) OF UNFAIR COMPETITION § 42 AM. L. INST. 1995
92. SANDEEN LEVINE, supra
93
see also
beyond trade secrecy
sine qua non
a’d
need not
See infra
94 Restatement (First) of Torts
See R
ESTATEMENT (FIRST) OF TORTS AM. L. INST.
95. See RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF UNFAIR COMPETITION AM. L. INST.
96 Restatements of Agency See RESTATEMENT
(FIRST) OF AGENCY § 396 (AM. L. INST. 1933) (
R
ESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF
AGENCY § 395 (AM. L. INST. 1958) (
R
ESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF AGENCY AM. L. INST.
97
Noncompetes: How Employers Can Protect
Their Business Interests ACC
DOCKET
the yale law journal
98. See, e.g. The Law and Ethics of Re-
strictions on an Employee’s Post-Employment Mobility A
M. BUS. L.J.
99 only
supra
100 Trade Secrets Ta ke Center Stage, and Contracts Play a Lead Role SKADDEN,
ARPS, SLATE, MEAGHER FLOM LLP
101
supra
Id.
102. See infra
103
beyond trade secrecy
stipulate
104. Id
105
See infra
106. See The Trade Secrecy Standard for Patent Prior Art
A
M. U. L. REV
107. See supra
108
109. Id
110
111. See, e.g.
the yale law journal
D. Identifying the Policy Problems
1. Employee Mobility
112. See supra
113. See, e.g. supra
see
also supra
114. See, e.g. supra
115 supra
116. See Secrets or Knowledge? Uber-Waymo Trial Tests Silicon Valley Culture
N.Y.
TIMES
117
See infra
beyond trade secrecy
2. Competition Eects
118. See supra
R
ESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF UNFAIR COMPETITION § 42
AM L. INST. 1995
see also
119. See generally ORLY LOBEL, TALENT WANTS TO BE FREE: WHY WE SHOULD LEARN TO LOVE
LEAKS, RAIDS, AND FREE RIDING
120
See Consumer Psychology and the
Problem of Fine-Print Fraud S
TAN. L. REV
121 Trade Secrets: How Well Should We Be Allowed to Hide Them? The
Economic Espionage Act of 1996 F
ORDHAM INTELL. PROP. MEDIA ENT. L.J.
122. See Restraints on Alienation of Human Capital VA. L. REV
see also
the yale law journal
3. Broader Eects on Innovation and Economic Growth
Debating Employee Non-Competes and Trade Secrets SANTA
CLARA HIGH TECH. L.J.
123 See, e.g.
The Case for Noncompetes C
HI. L. REV
124. See supra
Noncompetes, Human Capital Policy & Regional Competition J.
CORP. L.
.
125. See JOSH LERNER, THE ARCHITECTURE OF INNOVATION: THE ECONOMICS OF CREATIVE ORGAN-
IZATIONS
16
126. See Patent Nationally, Innovate Locally 31 BERKELEY TECH. L.J.
127. See, e.g. Do You Want to Know a Trade Secret? How Article 2B Will
Make Licensing Trade Secrets Easier (But Innovation More Dicult) C
ALIF. L. REV
The Economics of Improvement
in Intellectual Property Law T
EX. L. REV.
beyond trade secrecy
4. Notice Problems
Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Cumulative Research and the Patent Law J.
E
CON. PERSPS
128. See supra
supra
But see
Similar Secrets U.
PA. L. REV
129. See supra
130. Id.
131 see also supra
The Contours of American Trade Secret
Law supra
supra
the yale law journal
132 See supra
A Statistical Analysis of Trade Secret Litigation in State Courts G
ONZ. L. REV.
see also supra
133. See supra
134
See, e.g.
see also Preventing
Post Disaster: A Proposal for Refining the Inevitable Disclosure Doctrine S
ANTA CLARA
HIGH TECH
beyond trade secrecy
ii. legal treatment of confidentiality agreements beyond
trade secrecy
A. Preemption
1. Preemption by Trade Secret Law
Restatement (First) of
Torts
two
135
See, e.g.
cf. The Reemergence of State Anti-Patent Law C
OLO. L. REV
the yale law journal
First Restatement
First Restatement
First Restatement
136. RESTATEMENT (FIRST) OF TORTS AM. L. INST. see also
Business Secrecy Expansion and FOIA UCLA
L. REV
137. See The Evolution of Trade Secret Law and Why Courts Commit Error When
They Do Not Follow the Uniform Trade Secrets Act H
AMLINE L. REV.
138 Restatement (First) of Torts
RESTATEMENT (FIRST) OF TORTS AM. L. INST.
139
U
NIF. L. COMM’N
140. See, e.g. supra supra see also
R
ESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF UNFAIR COMPETITION AM. L. INST.
But see The Case Against the Protection of Negative Trade Secrets: Sisy-
phus’ Entrepreneurship
141 supra
beyond trade secrecy
did
142 The Artificial Distinction Between Trade Secrets and “Confidential Information”
IPW
ATCHDOG
see also supra
143 UNIF. L. COMM’N
does not See, e.g. The
New Law of Ideas H
ARV. J.L. TECH
The Diering Approaches to Preemption Under the Uniform Trade Secrets Act 49
TORT
TRIAL INS. PRAC. L.J. Preemption of Other State Law
by the Uniform Trade Secrets Act SMU
SCI. TECH L. REV
Illinois Trade Secret Law: The Peculiar Problem of Preemption S.
ILL. U. L.J
144 UNIF. L. COMM’N
145
U
NIF. L. COMM’N
Id.
146 Contract Exception supra
147. See generally , Trade Secrets Acts Compared to the UTSA ( ),
the yale law journal
148
Harrison v. NetCentric Corp.
149
See
But see
150. See, e.g.
see also
.
151
supra
beyond trade secrecy
2. Preemption by Patent or Copyright Law
Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp.
152 see also id.
153 trade secret liability
Id. see also Trade Secret Fair Use F
ORDHAM L. REV.
Tailor-
ing a Public Policy Exception to Trade Secret Protection C
ALIF. L. REV.
154. See Getting Patent Preemption Right J. INTELL. PROP. L.
155
156. Id.
the yale law journal
157. Id.
158
see also Federal Intellectual Property
Law and the Economics of Preemption I
OWA L. REV. Bonito
The Economics of Innovation: Protecting Unpatentable Goods M
INN. L. REV
Bonito
Revisited: Returning to First Principles of Intellectual Property Law to Determine the Issue
of Federal Preemption M
ARQ. INTELL. PROP. L. REV. Bonito
159. But see, e.g. Enforceability of Anti-Reverse Engineering Clauses in Soware Licensing
Agreements: The Chinese Position and Lessons from the United States and European Union’s Laws
U.
PA. J. INT’L L
160
forever See
see also M
ENELL , supra
beyond trade secrecy
Aronson v. Quick Point Pencil Co.,
ProCD, Inc.
v. Zeidenberg
161 Beyond Preemption: The Law and Policy of Intellectual Property Licensing
C
ALIF. L. REV
See
Id. See
generally The Rule of Reason and the Scope of the Patent S
AN DIEGO L.
REV.
162
See supra
163. Aronson
164
165. Id.
166. ProCD
trade secret See id
Kewanee
the yale law journal
see also
Copyright Preemption Aer the Case: A Market-Based Approach B
ERKELEY
TECH. L.J.
ProCD
167. See, e.g. see also
Legal-Ware: Contract and Copyright in the Digital Age F
ORDHAM L. REV.
168 , supra see also Super-Copyright: Contracts,
Preemption, and the Structure of Copyright Policymaking D
AVIS L. REV
Copyright Survives: Rethinking the
Copyright-Contract Conflict V
A. L. REV. See generally
Against Copyright Customization I
OWA L. REV.
169. But see Moving from Express Preemption to Conflict Preemption in Scrutinizing Con-
tracts over Copyrighted Goods A
KRON L. REV.
were
beyond trade secrecy
B. Contractual Unenforceability
1. The Common Wisdom: A Default Rule of Enforceability
170
But see In re
171. RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS § 178 (AM. L. INST. 1981).
172. See, e.g. Employee Noncompetition Agreements: Recent Developments and
Trends M
ASS. L. REV.
173. See, e.g. 3 LOUIS ALTMAN MALLA POLLACK, CALLMANN ON UNFAIR COMPETITION, TRADE-
MARKS
MONOPOLIES
see also
Buying Silence A
M. BUS. L.J. 151, 156 “
supra G
LYNN ET AL., supra
the yale law journal
not
174. MELVIN F. JAGER, Restrictive Covenants vs. Confidentiality Agreements—Restrictive Covenants, 2
TRADE SECRETS LAW § 13:4 ( 2022). But see supra
175. JAGER, supra 174, §§ 13:3, 13:4.
176. Id.
Id See, e.g.
see also
177. See, e.g.
appeal denied
178. See, e.g.
beyond trade secrecy
Loness Specialized Farm Equipment, Inc. v. Twiestmeyer,
Structural Dynamics Research
Corp. v. Engineering Mechanics Research Corp.
179 supra
supra
180
181 See 18 U.S.C. § 1836
R
OWE SANDEEN supra
.
182. See, e.g.
Contour
Design
183. See, e.g.
see also, e.g.
cert. denied
184. See infra
185 see also
a ’d
Structural Dynamics
the yale law journal
was
2. The “Three Tiers” Approach
Structural Dynamics
not
in theory
186. Structural Dynamics,
187. Id.
188
Id.
189. Id.
Id.
190. Id.
191
Id.
192. See, e.g.
beyond trade secrecy
Orthofix, Inc. v. Hunter
193
194 supra
supra
supra
195
196. Id.
197. Id.
198. Id.
199. Id.
the yale law journal
Orthofix
Orthofix
3. Cases Finding Confidentiality Agreements Unenforceable
200. See id.
see also supra
201. Orthofix, Inc
202. Id.
203
Id
204. See
205. Orthofix, Inc.
206 Restatement (Third) of Unfair Competition
beyond trade secrecy
R
ESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF UNFAIR COM-
PETITION
§ 41 (AM. L. INST. 1995); see also MENELL ET AL. supra
207. See, e.g.
208. See, e.g.
209. See, e.g.
see also supra
210. See, e.g.
211. See, e.g.
212. See, e.g.
the yale law journal
in the employment context
a. Confidentiality Agreements that Run Afoul of State Statutes
Regulating Noncompetes
see also
Employee Nondisclosure Agreements in South Carolina: Easily Made, Easily
Broken S.C.
L. REV
213. See, e.g.
any
214. See, e.g.
215. See, e.g.
see also supra
beyond trade secrecy
Brown v. TGS Management Co.,
LLC
216. CAL. BUS. PROF. CODE
See id.
217. See Restrictions on Worker Mobility and the Need for Stronger Policies on Anti-
competitive Employment Contract Provisions C
AL. LAWS. ASS’N: COMPETITION
218. Accord Nonpublic Information and California Tort Law: A Proposal for Harmonizing
California’s Employee Mobility and Intellectual Property Regimes under the Uniform Trade Secrets
Act UCLA
J.L. TECH.
219
220. Id.
221. Id.
222. Id.
the yale law journal
ab initio
not
not
is
Doe v. Google, Inc.
Brown
223. Id.
224. Id.
225. Id.
226. Id.
Id
not confidential
Id
227. See supra
beyond trade secrecy
explicitly
implicit
Brown
228
229. Id.
230. Id.
231. Id.
232. Id.
233. Id.
234. Id.
235. Id.
236. Id.
237. Id.
the yale law journal
238. Id.
239. Id.
240. WIS. STAT. see Draing Restric-
tive Covenants in Employment Contracts M
ARQ. L. REV.
241
W
IS. STAT.
242. See
see also, e.g.
cf.
appeal dismissed
243. See, e.g. Friemuth
beyond trade secrecy
Nalco Chemical Co. v. Hydro Te chnologies, Inc.
b. Confidentiality Agreements that Fall Below Common Law
“Reasonableness” Standards
244. See
245. See id
246 Id.
247. Id
248. See RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS AM. L. INST. see also, e.g.,
Employee Noncompetes: A State-by-State Survey B
ECK REED RIDEN LLP
Contracting Away Your Career: An Inter-
state Comparison of Noncompete Law and A Proposal for Optimal Legislation in New York
C
ARDOZO L. REV
Draing Eective Noncompete
Clauses and Other Restrictive Covenants: Considerations Across the United States F
LA. COASTAL
L. REV
the yale law journal
TLS Management & Marketing Services,
LLC v. Rodríguez-Toledo
;
;
249
Id
250.
251. Id
252. Id
253. Id
254. Id
255. Id
256
Id.
257. Id.
beyond trade secrecy
C. State Legislation Addressing Enforceability of Confidentiality Agreements
1. Statutes that Regulate Confidentiality Agreements as Restrictive
Covenants
258. See id
259. Id
260. Id
261 See Legislative Changes Give
Georgia Employers Cause to Review the Restrictive Covenants in Their Employment Contracts
C
ARLTON FIELDS
see
also, e.g.
Durham
the yale law journal
not
a default
rule of unenforceability
262. See GA. CODE ANN.
263. Id see also id
264. Id
265
266. UNIF. RESTRICTIVE EMP. AGREEMENT ACT § 9 NAT’L CONF. OF COMM’RS ON UNIF. STATE L.
267. See, e.g.
not
beyond trade secrecy
2. Nonuniform Amendments to Preemption Provisions
not
not
and confidential information
, such confidentiality shall be determined according to the
definition of trade secret
268 supra
269 ILL. COMP. STAT.
270
271 MASS. GEN. LAWS
the yale law journal
D. Federal Trade Commission Proposed Rulemaking
272
273
See id.
274
275. Id
276
beyond trade secrecy
is
Brown,
iii. confidentiality agreements in practice
277 Id.
278. See infra
279 It’s Ocial: The Federal Trade Commission Seeks to Ban Noncompetes and Overly
“Broad” NDAs BAILEY CAVALIERI ,
280 Brown
281. See, e.g. The Incomplete Noncompete Picture LEWIS
CLARK L. REV. see also supra
the yale law journal
Brown
A. Study Design and Data Collection
282
Yale Law Journal
See
Open Letter on Ethical Norms in Intellectual Property Scholarship
H
ARV. J.L. TECH.
283 supra
beyond trade secrecy
284
285 supra
Id.
See supra
286 supra
287
288
supra
289
Id.
290
Id.
291
See supra
292
293
294. See, e.g.
the yale law journal
295. See supra
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
beyond trade secrecy
;
;
;
;
;
306
307. Id.
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
the yale law journal
B. Results
320
321
322
323
beyond trade secrecy
C. Limitations
324. See The Past, Present, and Future of Empirical Legal Scholarship: Judicial Decision
Making and the New Empiricism U.
ILL. L. REV.
Empirical
Legal Scholarship as Scientific Dialogue N.C.
L. REV.
325 The Selection of Disputes for Litigation J. LEGAL STUD.
the yale law journal
326 Asymmetric Information, Uncertainty, and Selection Bias in Litigation U.
CHI. L. SCH. ROUNDTABLE see also Litigation Models and
Trial Outcomes in Civil Rights and Prisoner Cases G
EO. L.J.
327. See AM. INTELL. PROP. L. ASS’N, 2019 REPORT OF THE ECONOMIC SURVEY
328. See Alternative Dispute Resolution in Commercial
Intellectual Property Disputes A
M. U. L. REV.
See generally Alternative Dis-
pute Resolution: An Economic Analysis J.
LEGAL STUD.
329. See, e.g.
330
See id.
see also
beyond trade secrecy
331
See supra
332. See, e.g. supra
333. See generally The Impacts of Restricting Mobility
of Skilled Service Workers: Evidence from Physicians J.
HUM. RES.
334. See LEE EPSTEIN ANDREW D. MARTIN, AN INTRODUCTION TO EMPIRICAL LEGAL RESEARCH
335
the yale law journal
D. Implications
336
Systematic Content Analysis of Judicial Opinions C
ALIF.
L. REV. see also EPSTEIN MARTIN supra
337. See
338. See supra
339. See, e.g.
beyond trade secrecy
340. See supra
341. See supra
342. See, e.g.
343. See, e.g.
a ’d
See
see also
, Interpreting Injunctions V
A. L. REV.
344. See supra see also
the yale law journal
iv. changing the default rule
345. See ROWE SANDEEN supra
But see The (Still) Shaky Foundations of
Trade Secret Law T
EX. L. REV
346
See, e.g. supra
347
see also A High
Mountain to Climb: Filing DTSA Claims Without Any Evidence Is Not Enough to Meet “Bad Faith”
Standard for Awarding Attorneys’ Fees to Opponent N
AT’L L. REV.
348
since
See, e.g.
349. See
beyond trade secrecy
un
always
all
350. See , as modified on
denial of reh’g
351. See, e.g.
352
See infra
353. See, e.g. supra
the yale law journal
A. Legitimate Interests—Do They Protect Trade Secrets or Legitimately Secret
Information?
legitimately
354. See supra ; see also
Using Noncompete Agreements to Protect Legitimate Business Interests D
EF. COUNS.
J
supra .
not
See supra
See, e.g. Protecting Employer Investment in Training: Noncompetes vs. Re-
payment Agreements D
UKE L.J
See supra see also
supra
beyond trade secrecy
B. Eect on Employee’s Ability to Compete—Is It a De Facto Noncompete?
355. See supra
356. See supra
357
See supra
358
purely
See, e.g. The Unbearable Lightness of Consent in Contract Law C
ASE W.
RSRV. L. REV
See supra
the yale law journal
C. Duration—Is It Still Secret?
359. See, e.g. Employee Non-Competes and Consideration: A
Proposed Good Faith Standard for the “Aerthought” Agreement U.
KAN. L. REV. 409, 414, 427
(2015)
360 See, e.g. OR. REV. STAT. ANN.
M
ASS. GEN. LAWS
361 ,
362
see also
363
G
A. CODE ANN.
364
beyond trade secrecy
at
the time the employee seeks to use or disclose it.
D. Recommended Exclusions
1. Public or Generally Known Information
TLS Management,
365
G
A. CODE ANN. see also supra
366
367. See supra
the yale law journal
2. Required by Law
368
369
370. See, e.g. CAL. LAB. CODE
371
See
petition for review docketed,
see
beyond trade secrecy
372 Farmers Group, Inc. v. Lee
373 supra
374 supra
375
See supra
376. See UNIF. TRADE SECRETS ACT UNIF. L. COMM’N
see also Life, Liberty, and Trade Secrets: Intellectual Property in the
Criminal Justice System S
TAN. L. REV
377 supra
the yale law journal
3. General Knowledge, Skill, and Experience
not
AssuredPartners, Inc. v. Schmitt
378. See, e.g.
379. See, e.g.
380. See supra
beyond trade secrecy
did not include
Brown.
E. Confidential yet Non-Trade-Secret Information
1. Nonpublic Information that Is Theoretically Readily Ascertainable
Through Proper Means
381
382. Id.
383. Id.
384
385
the yale law journal
386 see also UNIF. TRADE SECRETS ACT UNIF. L. COMM’N
supra
387. See UNIF. TRADE SECRETS ACT UNIF. L. COMM’N
388. Uniform Restrictive Employment Agreement Act, NAT’L CONF. OF COMM’RS ON UNIF. STATE L.
389. See supra
390. See, e.g., MILGRIM BENSEN, supra § 1.03
beyond trade secrecy
also
employees
391
see also
U
NIF. TRADE SECRETS ACT UNIF. L. COMM’N
392 The Myth of DNA Trade
Secrets, H
ASTINGS L.J.
393
See Copyright in Collections of
Facts: A Theory for the Protection of Nonfiction Literary Works C
OLUM. L. REV.
Creation and Commercial Value: Copyright Protection of Works of In-
formation C
OLUM. L. REV
394 See Intel-
lectual Property Rights in Data V
AND. L. REV.
395 See
automatically
the yale law journal
contractual
396 supra
could
397. CAL. CIV. CODE Judicial
Council of California Civil Jury Instructions J
UD. COUNCIL CAL.
see also The Uniform Trade Secrets Act: California Civil Code 3426
S
ANTA CLARA HIGH TECH. L.J.
defense
See I
LL. COMP. STAT.
398
unless
See The Messy Process of
Making and Applying the Law IPW
ATCHDOG
beyond trade secrecy
2. Information that Is Not Subject to Reasonable Secrecy Precautions
399 see also UNIF. L. COMM’N
400. See , supra
401 supra
402. Id
403. See, e.g.
404. Id. see also
cf.
the yale law journal
not
3. Information that Fails to Derive “Independent Economic Value” from
Secrecy
405. See supra
406 supra
407. Id
408 supra
409. Cf. supra
see also
beyond trade secrecy
;
;
410. See generally supra
411. See supra
412. See From Trade Secrecy to Seclusion GEO
Diversity Statistics as a Trade Secret GEO. L.J.
type
supra
413. See
see also
Enhancing Cybersecurity for the Digital Health Marketplace A
NNALS OF HEALTH L.
414 supra see also
415. See supra
the yale law journal
F. Mechanisms for Regulating Confidentiality Provisions
416
See supra
417. See Hushing Contracts WASH. U. L. REV.
see also
supra
418. See supra
419. See supra
420. See supra
beyond trade secrecy
conclusion
421
trade
secrets
422. See supra
423
424. See Dissenting Statement of Commissioner Christine S. Wilson Concerning the Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking for the Non-Compete Clause Rule F
ED. TRADE COMM’N
425 How Can Federal Actors Compete on Noncompetes? Examining the Need for and
Possibility of Federal Action on Noncompetition Agreements D
ICK. L. REV
426. See supra
the yale law journal
