The number of jobs in the United States (U.S.) requiring substanal science, technology, engineering, and mathemacs
(STEM) experse has grown nearly 34% over the past decade. As of 2015, nearly one in seven workers with at least a
four-year degree say that their job requires a “bachelor’s level” of STEM experse.
1
Another 16 million skilled technical
jobs–more than one in nine–do not require a bachelor’s degree, yet require signicant experse in at least one
technical eld.
2
At the same me, other countries are challenging U.S. leadership in science and technology. Between 2000 and 2014,
the number of Americans with a four-year degree in S&E grew by 53% (483,764 to 741,763); in China, this number was
360% (359,478 to 1,653,565).
3
China’s investments in higher educaon and research and development (R&D) have
fueled the rapid growth of its high-technology industries.
4
Their high-tech manufacturing output now ranks number
two in the world, trailing only the U.S.
5
China is not alone–other countries are increasing investments in R&D and
educaon to compete with the U.S. (Figure 1).
6
We Must Take Advantage of our Nation’s Greatest Asset–Our People
As science and technology transform our economy and global compeon grows, our Naon must focus on its greatest
asset–our people. The U.S. can no longer rely on a disnct and relavely small “STEM workforce.”
7
Instead, we need
a STEM-capable U.S. workforce that leverages the hard work, creavity, and ingenuity of women and men of all ages,
all educaon levels, and all backgrounds.
8
We need sciensts searching for cures for genec disorders, engineers
revoluonizing and securing our electrical grid, skilled technicians improving the operaons of our research facilies
and hospitals, and farmers producing healthier crops ulizing new technologies that at the same me consume fewer
resources.
A STEM-capable workforce provides the U.S. with an enduring compeve advantage. Building and sustaining it will
require cooperaon and commitment from local, state, and federal governments, educaon instuons at all levels,
non-governmental organizaons, and businesses large and small. As a naon, we must work together to ensure all
segments of our populaon have access to aordable, high-quality educaon and training opportunies beginning
as early as kindergarten and lasng well beyond graduaon. Today’s workers need “on-ramps” to develop the STEM
experse and other crical capabilies so they can adapt and thrive.
9
Most of all, we must ensure that no Americans
are le behind. All our people must be armed with the skills and knowledge to meet the future head on.
Among the groups that are underulized, yet essenal to our future compeveness, are workers who use technical
skills in their jobs but who do not have a four-year degree (“skilled technical workers”) and people at all educaon
levels who have been historically underrepresented in STEM. Growing the skilled technical workforce and reducing
barriers to parcipaon in STEM will increase individual economic opportunity and support our Naon’s leadership in
science and technology.
National Science Board
Science and Engineering Indicators
2018
National Science Board [email protected] | 703.292.7000
NSB Indicators Resource Page | nsf.gov/nsb/sei
National Science Foundation
nsf.gov/statistics/indicators | NSB-2018-7
A Policy Companion Statement to Science and Engineering Indicators 2018
OUR NATION’S FUTURE COMPETITIVENESS
RELIES ON BUILDING A STEM-CAPABLE U.S. WORKFORCE
The Skilled Technical Workforce
The most important and dening feature of a STEM-capable U.S. workforce is that it leverages the talents of people at
all educaon levels and in all sectors. It not only includes tradional sciensts and engineers performing research in
university, government, or industry labs, but also “skilled technical workers” who can install, repair, debug, and build, but
who do not have four-year degrees.
10
Though somemes overlooked, the skilled technical workforce is large and diverse. These workers can be found in cies,
towns, and rural areas throughout the U.S. Esmates of the size of the skilled technical workforce vary from just over 6.1
million to over 16.1 million. The size of this workforce is growing. The composion of this segment of the U.S. workforce
closely mirrors U.S. populaon demographics. In 2015, about 13% of skilled technical workers in STEM jobs were black,
10% were Hispanic, 4% were Asian, and about 11% were foreign born.
11
These workers are a crucial component of almost every sector of the U.S. economy, ranging from “blue collar”
occupaons, such as installaon, maintenance, and repair, to healthcare and computer occupaons. Skilled technical
workers are also crical to the operaon of our Naon’s research infrastructure. The Nobel-Prize winning discovery of
gravitaonal waves at NSF’s Laser Interferometer Gravitaonal-Wave Observatory (LIGO) would not have been possible
without the invaluable experse of the people who assemble and maintain the facility’s large and complex heang,
venlaon, vacuum, air condioning, and electronic systems.
Skilled technical jobs are in high demand and pay well. In 2015, the median earnings of skilled technical workers in S&E
($60,000) or S&E-related ($45,000) occupaons were signicantly higher than the median earnings in other occupaons
($29,000).
12
These occupaons are expected to have the fastest growth over the next decade.
13
Despite this, employers
in 80% of local areas said they had trouble lling jobs in occupaons that depend on skilled technical workers, according
to a survey conducted by the Government Accountability Oce.
14
Coordinated policies and investments aimed at
building and strengthening on-ramps into skilled technical careers will help address labor market demands, increase the
number of STEM-capable workers, and provide workers with the knowledge and skills needed to adapt to an evolving
workplace.
Groups Underrepresented in STEM
The Naonal Science Board believes that America’s demographic diversity is a disnct compeve advantage. Research
shows that diverse companies have beer strategies, are more innovave, and win economically.
15
Numerous enes,
including the Naonal Science Foundaon (NSF), have undertaken a myriad of iniaves spanning decades aimed at
leveraging the talents of all segments of our populaon, especially groups historically underrepresented in STEM. Yet, in
spite of some progress, crippling disparies in STEM educaon remain (Figure 2).
Although women have earned about half of all science and engineering (S&E) bachelor’s degrees since the late 1990s,
their levels of parcipaon vary widely across S&E elds (Figure 3). The proporon of bachelor’s degrees awarded
to women in high demand elds such as computer sciences (18%) and engineering (20%) remain low.
16
Overall,
while women occupy half of all jobs in the U.S. workforce, they constute slightly less than 28% of workers in S&E
occupaons.
17
The talents of minority groups in the U.S. are perhaps our greatest untapped resource. Hispanics, blacks, and American
Indians or Alaska Naves together make up 27% of the U.S. populaon age 21 and older, but only 15% of those who
hold their highest degree in S&E and 11% of workers in S&E occupaons.
18
The proporon of S&E bachelor’s degrees
awarded to blacks remained at at 9% between 2000 and 2015 (32,993 to 53,649).
19
These gaps are even more
pronounced at the doctoral level where blacks earned 4% of all S&E doctoral degrees awarded in 2015.
20
In 2015, blacks
accounted for 12% of the U.S. populaon 21 or older but only 5% of S&E job holders.
21
The negave consequences of
these gaps will only grow: according to a recent report, nearly 25% of black workers are concentrated in 20 occupaons
that are at high risk of automaon, such as cashiers, cooks, security guards, drivers, and administrave assistants.
22
2
The share of bachelor’s degrees in S&E awarded to Hispanics increased from 7% (27,980) to 12% (79,203) between 2000
and 2015.
23
Despite these gains, Hispanics accounted for 6% of employment in S&E occupaons in 2015, well below
their share of the U.S. populaon age 21 and older (15%).
24
The proporon of bachelor’s degrees earned by Hispanics
in high-demand elds such as computer science (10%) and engineering (10%) remain low.
25
The changing demographics
of the U.S. populaon will amplify the consequences of these gaps since increased enrollment in higher educaon is
expected to come mainly from minority groups, parcularly Hispanics.
Military veterans returning from deployment are another group whose skills are oen underulized. Many possess
technical training and have signicant experience with advanced technologies and systems.
26
Several iniaves focused
on academic advising, internships, networking services and peer support are underway to alleviate the roadblocks
that veterans encounter as they enter the civilian workforce.
27
To help inform these eorts, the Naonal Science
Foundaon’s Naonal Center for Science and Engineering Stascs is beginning to collect data that will reveal the
relaonship between educaon and career pathways for veterans with four-year degrees.
Attracting and Retaining the Best Internationally Mobile Students
Up to this point, our Naon has compensated for the failure to take full advantage of all segments of the populaon by
aracng the best students from around the globe. This is especially true at the graduate degree level, where foreign-
born
28
students earn over one-third of all U.S. STEM doctorates, including nearly half of the degrees in engineering and
computer science.
29
While the U.S. remains the top desnaon for internaonally mobile students, its share of these
students declined from 25% in 2000 to 19% in 2015 as other countries increasingly compete for them.
30
Our Naon’s ability to aract students from around the world is important, but our compeve advantage in this area
is fully realized when these individuals stay to work in the United States post-graduaon. The overall “stay rates” for
foreign-born non-cizens who received a Ph.D. from U.S. instuons have generally trended upwards since the turn of
the century, reaching 70% for both the 5-year and 10-year stay rates in 2015.
31
However, the percentage of new STEM
doctorates from China and India—the two top countries of origin—with denite plans to stay in the U.S. has declined
over the past decade (from 59% to 49% for China and 62% to 51% for India).
32
As other naons build their innovaon
capacity through investments in R&D and higher educaon, we must acvely nd ways to aract and retain foreign
talent and fully capitalize on our own cizens.
Building the U.S. Workforce of the Future Requires Our Collective Effort
STEM knowledge and skills will connue to play a crical role in fostering individual
opportunity and naonal compeveness. Strengthening a diverse STEM-capable
U.S. workforce that leverages the talents of all segments of our populaon has never
been more important. Considering the increasing demands placed on students,
workers, businesses, and government budgets, instuons must partner to build the
U.S. workforce of the future. These joint eorts are necessary in order to prosper in
an increasingly globally compeve knowledge- and technology- intensive world.
• Governments at all levels should empower all segments of our populaon
through investments in formal and informal educaon and workforce
development throughout an individual’s life-span. This includes redoubling our
commitment to training the next generaon of sciensts and engineers through
sustained and predictable Federal investments in graduate educaon and basic
research.
NSF must continue to do its part.
In recognition of the
importance of catalyzing
cross-sector partnerships, NSF
launched the Inclusion across
the Nation of Communities of
Learners of Underrepresented
Discoverers in Engineering and
Science (INCLUDES) program
in 2016. INCLUDES aims to
expand the composition of
the STEM-capable workforce
by developing scalable ways
to grow the STEM-capable
workforce by building new
and strengthening existing
partnerships.
3
• Businesses should invest in workplace learning programs–such as apprenceships and internships–that ulize local
talent. By leveraging partnerships between academic instuons and industry, such as those catalyzed by NSF’s
Advanced Technological Educaon Program (ATE), businesses will be less likely to face a workforce “skills gap.”
• Governments and businesses should expand their investments in community and technical colleges, which
connue to provide individuals with on-ramps into skilled technical careers as well as opportunies for skill renewal
and development for workers at all educaon levels throughout their careers.
• To accelerate progress on diversifying the STEM-capable U.S. workforce, the Naon should connue to invest in
underrepresented segments of the populaon and leverage Minority Serving Instuons to this end.
33
Collecvely, we must proceed with urgency and purpose to ensure that this Naon and all our people are ready to meet
the challenges and opportunies of the future.
FIGURE 1: Gross domestic expenditures on R&D, by the U.S., China, and selected other countries: 2000–2015
EU = European Union; PPP = purchasing power parity
Notes: Data are selected R&D-performing countries and the EU. Data are not available for all countries for all years. Data for the United States in this gure
reect international standards for calculating gross expenditures on R&D, which vary slightly from the National Science Foundation’s protocol for tallying
U.S. total R&D.
Sources: National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, National Patterns of R&D Resources (annual series); Organ-
isation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Main Science and Technology Indicators (2017/1); United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural
Organization Institute for Statistics Data Centre, data.uis.unesco.org, accessed 13 October 2017. Adapted from Figure 4-6, Science and Engineering Indicators
2018. (Also see Appendix Table 4–12.)
4
FIGURE 2: Share of S&E bachelor’s degrees among U.S. citizens and permanent residents: 2000-15
By race and ethnicity
Notes: National estimates were not available from the Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT) in 2001.
Sources: National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, SESTAT (1993–2013), https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/sestat/,
and the National Survey of College Graduates (NSCG) (2015), https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvygrads/. Adapted from Figure 3-27, Science and Engineering
Indicators 2018.
Notes: Hispanic may be any race. American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian or Pacic Islander, black or African American, and white refer to individuals who are
not of Hispanic origin.
Sources: National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions Survey; National Science Founda-
tion, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, WebCASPAR database, https://ncsesdata.nsf.gov/webcaspar/. Adapted from Figure 2-12, Science
and Engineering Indicators 2018.
FIGURE 3: Women in S&E occupations: 1993–2015
5
1 Survey data collected using the Naonal Survey of College Graduates (NSCG) showed that 19,366,000 respondents stated that their job requires S&E technical
experse at the bachelor’s level. See Naonal Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2018 (Alexandria, VA: Naonal Science Board, 2018), Table 3-3.
For more informaon on the NSCG, see hps://nsf.gov/stascs/srvygrads/#sd.
2 Jonathan Rothwell, “Dening Skilled Technical Work,” (Washington, DC: Naonal Academies, 2015). Retrieved from: hp://sites.naonalacademies.org/cs/
groups/pgasite/documents/webpage/pga_167744.pdf.
3 Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 2-35.
4 The pace of China’s increase in R&D performance (measured as expenditures) has been exceponally high over numerous years, averaging 20.5% annually over
2000–10 and 13.9% for 2010–15 (or 18.0% and 12.0%, respecvely, when adjusted for inaon). This represents an increase in gross expenditures on R&D and
expenditures for R&D (GERD) from $40.4 billion in 2000 to $371.6 billion in 2015 (2009 constant PPP $ billions). Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 4-12.
5 Indicators 2018, 6-5.
6 For example, between 2000 and 2010 South Korea experienced 11% average annual growth in R&D spending and 7.3% growth rate between 2010-15 (or 8.6%
and 5.5%, respecvely, when adjusted for inaon). South Korea now accounts for 4% of global R&D spending. Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 4-12.
7 According to the Bureau of Labor Stascs (BLS), the majority of net job openings (57%) and largest growth rate (15%) in NSF-idened S&E occupaons for
the period 2014-2024 are projected to be in computer and mathemacal science occupaons. Engineering occupaons, the second largest subcategory of
S&E occupaons, are expected to generate about one-fourth (27%) of all job openings in S&E occupaons during the same period. It is important to note that
projected changes in the labor force and employment do not necessarily imply a labor shortage or surplus. For more on BLS occupaonal projecons, see
hps://www.bls.gov/emp/.
8 Paul M. Romer, “Human capital and growth: Theory and evidence,” Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy 32, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 251-286;
Eric A. Hanushek and Ludger Woessmann, “Do beer schools lead to more growth? Cognive skills, economic outcomes, and causaon,” Journal of Economic
Growth 17, no. 4 (December 2012): 267-321.
9 Other crical capabilies include communicaon skills, the ability to work in teams, and problem solving and crical thinking skills.
10 In November 2017, the Naonal Science Board established a Task Force on the Skilled Technical Workforce. For more informaon, see hps://nsf.gov/nsb/
commiees/stwcmte.jsp.
11 In 2015, the corresponding shares among workers in STEM occupaons with four-year degrees were 7% black, 6% Hispanic, 17% Asian, and 24% foreign born.
Indicators 2018, 3-84.
12 Indicators 2018, 3-84.
13 For more informaon on employment projecons published by the Bureau of Labor Stascs, see hps://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_table_103.htm.
14 For example, employers had trouble lling jobs in the following occupaonal categories: Installaon, Maintenance, and Repair; Construcon and Extracon;
Healthcare Praconers and Technical Occupaons; Producon; and Computer and Mathemacal Occupaons. In the report, the term “local areas” refers to
the areas overseen by both local and statewide Workforce Investment Boards (WIBs). For more informaon, see hps://www.gao.gov/assets/660/659322.pdf.
15 See Robin J. Ely and David A. Thomas, “Cultural Diversity at Work: The Eects of Diversity Perspecves on Work Group Processes and Outcomes,” Administrave
Science Quarterly 46, 2 (June 2001): 229-273; David A. Thomas, “Diversity as Strategy,” Harvard Business Review 89, no. 9 (September 2004): 98; Sylvia Ann
Hewle, Melinda Marshall, and Laura Sherbin, “How diversity can drive innovaon,” Harvard Business Review 91, no. 12 (December 2013): 30; Vivian Hunt,
Dennis Layton and Sara Prince, Diversity Maers (McKinsey & Company, 2015). Retrieved from: hps://www.mckinsey.com/business-funcons/organizaon/
our-insights/why-diversity-maers.
16 Naonal Science Foundaon, Women, Minories, and Persons with Disabilies in Science and Engineering (Arlington, VA: Naonal Center for Science and
Engineering Stascs, 2017). Retrieved from: hps://www.nsf.gov/stascs/2017/nsf17310/digest/about-this-report/.
17 Indicators 2018, 3-8.
18 Indicators 2018, 3-8.
19 Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 2-22.
20 Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 2-32.
21 Indicators 2018, Table 3-19.
22 Spencer Overton, “The Impact of Automaon on Black Jobs,” (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Polical and Economic Studies, 2017). Retrieved from: hp://
jointcenter.org/sites/default/les/The%20Impact%20of%20Automaon%20on%20Black%20Jobs.pdf. For the impact on innovaon, see David Leonhardt, “Lost
Einsteins: The Innovaons We’re Missing,” New York Times, 3 December 2017. Retrieved from: hps://www.nymes.com/2017/12/03/opinion/lost-einsteins-
innovaon-inequality.html.
23 These rates are for U.S. cizens and permanent residents as a proporon of all earned bachelor’s degrees awarded in S&E. Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 2-22.
24 Indicators 2018, 3-116.
25 Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 2-22.
26 Numerous programs designed to maximize employment opportunies for veterans have focused on helping veterans transion from the military to the civilian
workforce. These programs range from changes to the GI Bill, the Transion Assistance Program, and Vocaonal Rehabilitaon and Employment services. For an
overview of the range of transion programs for veterans as well as key challenges, see Naonal Academies, “Building America’s Skilled Technical Workforce,”
(Washington, DC: Naonal Academies Press, 2017), 115-121.
27 See H.R.3218 - Harry W. Colmery Veterans Educaonal Assistance Act of 2017, hps://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/3218/
text?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22hr+3218%22%5D%7D&r=1.
28 Foreign-born is a broad category, ranging from long-term U.S. residents with strong roots in the United States to recent immigrants who compete in global job
markets and whose main social, educaonal, and economic es are in their countries of origin.
29 Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 2-29.
30 According to data from UNESCO/UIS, the number of internaonally mobile students who pursued a higher educaon degree more than doubled between 2000
and 2014, to 4.3 million. For discussion of internaonally mobile students see Indicators 2018, 2-96.
31 Long-term stay rates indicate the degree to which foreign-born non-cizens recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates enter and remain in the U.S. workforce to pursue
their careers. The 10-year and 5-year stay rates in 2015 refer to the proporon of 2005 and 2010 graduang cohorts, respecvely, who reported living in the
United States in 2015. See Indicators 2018, Table 3-27.
32 Indicators 2018, Appendix Table 3-21.
33 Minority Serving Instuons include Historically Black Colleges & Universies (HBCUs), Hispanic Serving Instuons (HSIs), and Tribal Colleges and Universies
(TCUs).
Endnotes
National Science Board [email protected] | 703.292.7000
NSB Indicators Resource Page | nsf.gov/nsb/sei
National Science Foundation
nsf.gov/statistics/indicators | NSB-2018-7
6
