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Businessand
Professional
Communication
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Businessand
Professional
Communication
Putting People First
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KoryFloyd
UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
PeterWCardon
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
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BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION: PUTTING PEOPLE FIRST
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2020 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by
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Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or
broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside
the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 21 20 19
ISBN 978-1-260-51449-0 (bound edition)
MHID 1-260-51449-8 (bound edition)
ISBN 978-1-260-24505-9 (loose-leaf edition)
MHID 1-260-24505-5 (loose-leaf edition)
Portfolio Manager: Peter Jurmu
Senior Product Developer: Kelly I. Pekelder
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Floyd, Kory, author. | Cardon, Peter W., author.
Title: Business and professional communication: / Kory Floyd, University Of
Arizona, Peter Cardon, University of Southern California.
Description: First edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2020] |
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018055794 | ISBN 9781260514490 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Business communication. | Communication in management. |
Communication in organizations.
Classification: LCC HF5718 .F595 2020 | DDC 658.4/5--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018055794
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education
does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
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DEDICATION
To the mentors who trained and nurtured us, and to
the students who teach and inspire us.
KoryFloyd
—Peter Cardon
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
KoryFloyd is a professor of communication at the University of Arizona. His research focuses 
on interpersonal communication in a variety of contexts, with particular focus on how positive 
communication contributes to well-being. He has written 15 books and over 100 scientific 
papers and book chapters on the topics of interpersonal behavior, emotion, nonverbal beha-
vior, and health. He is a former editor of Communication Monographs and Journal of Family
Communication. His  work  has  been recognized  with  both the Charles H.  Woolbert Award 
and the Bernard J. Brommel Award from the National Communication Association, as well 
as the Early Career Achievement Award from the International Association for Relationship 
Research. As an educator, he teaches courses on interpersonal communication, communica-
tion theory, nonverbal communication, and quantitative research methods. Professor Floyd 
received his undergraduate degree from Western Washington University, his master’s degree 
from the University of Washington, and his PhD from the University of Arizona.
PeterCardon is a professor of business communication at the University of Southern 
California. He also serves as the academic director of the MBA for Professionals and 
Managers  Program.  His  research  focuses  on  virtual  team  communication,  leadership 
communication on digital platforms, and intercultural business communication. He has 
worked in China for three years and regularly takes MBA and other business students on 
company tours in China, South Korea, and other locations in Asia. He previously served 
as president of the  Association for Business  Communication, a  global organization of 
business  communication  scholars  and  instructors.  He  is  an  active  member  of  Rotary 
International, a global service organization committed to promoting peace, fighting dis-
ease, providing educational opportunities, and growing local economies.
Kory Floyd (left) and Peter Cardon (right)
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BRIEFCONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
CommunicatingforProfessionalSuccess
CHAPTER 2 
CultureDiversityandGlobalEngagement
CHAPTER 3 
VerbalandNonverbalMessages
CHAPTER 4 
ListeningandLearning
CHAPTER 5 
PerspectiveTaking
CHAPTER 6 
EffectiveTeamCommunication
CHAPTER 7 
EffectiveMeetings
CHAPTER 8 
CareerCommunication
CHAPTER 9 
InterviewingSuccessfully
CHAPTER 10 
WritingacrossMedia
CHAPTER 11 
MajorGoalsforPresentations
CHAPTER 12 
PlanningandCraftingPresentations
CHAPTER 13 
FindingSupportforYourPresentationGoals
CHAPTER 14 
RehearsingandDelivering
SuccessfulPresentations
GLOSSARY 
INDEX 
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APEOPLEFIRSTAPPROACH
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Arapidlyevolvingglobalworkplacerequiresstudentstodevelopavarietyofprofes
sionalskillstosucceedProfessionalsuccessoftenrestsontheabilitytolistenengen
dertrustadapttoculturaldifferencesandconsidertheperspectivesofothers
TohighlighttheseskillsinprofessionalsettingsKoryFloydandPeterCardonadopta
people first approachthatprioritizesqualityworkplacerelationships
Authentic Examples
UsingdozensofauthenticexamplesfromthebusinessworldBusinessandProfessional
CommunicationPuttingPeopleFirstemphasizeshowstudentscancommunicateinper
sonandinvirtualsettingstodevelopmeaningfulrichandproductiveprofessionalrela
tionshipsinatechnologysaturatedworld
Perspective Taking
Uniquetothemarketthistextincludesadedicatedchapterfocusedonperspective
takingcoveringtheprocessesofpersonperceptioncommonperceptualerrorsthe
selfservingbiasandthefundamentalattributionerrortheselfconceptandthepro
cessesofimagemanagementThischapterequipsstudentstounderstandandpayat
tentiontotheperspectivesofothers
Career Communication
Alsouniquetothemarket thistextincludesadedicatedchapterfocused oncareer
communicationencouragingstudentstoengageinnetworkingandtoconsiderthepri
oritiesandpointsofviewofothersastheyseekemploymentandinteractprofessionally
Recurring People First
Feature
Occurring in every chapter the People First
featurepresentsstudentswithrealisticscenar
iosthataresensitivediscomfortingortrickyto
manageItthenteachesstudentshow tonavi
gate those situations effectively Students are
givenconcreteskillsforpreservingrelationships
withothersastheyencounterthesedifficultmo
mentsandconversations
AN ONGOING FOCUS ON SKILL BUILDING, SELF-ASSESSMENT,
AND CRITICAL THINKING
Throughouteachchapterstudentsencounteropportunitiestoengageinskillbuilding
selfassessmentandcriticalthinking
●
EachchapterincludesSharpen Your Skillsfeaturesandendofchapter
Skill-Building Exercisesthatidentifyparticularcommunicationskillsandgive
activitiesforstudentstohelpbuilditthem
●
Givingstudentstheopportunitytoanalyzewheretheycurrentlyarewithrespect
toaparticulartraitThe Competent Communicatorfeatureallowsstudentsto
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selfassessaspecificcharacteristictraitortendencyandprovidesinstructions
forcalculatingandinterpretingtheirscores
●
Chapter Review Questionsattheendofeachchapterstimulatecriticalthinking
andreflectionandcanbeusedtosparkinteractionintheclassroomoraswriting
assignments
AN ENGAGING, NARRATIVE-BASED APPROACH
Chaptersbeginbypresentingstudentswithanarrativeofacommunicationproblem
ordilemmaandthenconcludebyresolvingthatdilemmabyreferencingtheprinciples
throughoutthechapterEachchapterisillustratedwithrichexamplesofrealbusiness
communicatorswhichbringtheprinciplestolifeforstudentsThisinteractiveapproach
allowsstudentstoactivelyengagewiththecontentinsteadofpassivelyreadingit
Bringing It All Together
Studentspreparingtosucceedintoday’sworkplacerequiresolidtrainingincommunication
skillsandprinciplesaswellasexperienceapplyingtheminrealisticprofessionalcontexts
KoryFloydandPeterCardonbringsubstantialandconcretebusinessworldexperi
encetobearintheproduct’sprinciplesexamplesand activitiesandensurethat the
theoriesconceptsandskillsmostrelevanttothecommunicationdisciplinearefullyrep
resentedandengagedTheresultisaprogramthatspeaksstudents’languageandhelps
themunderstandandapplycommunicationskillsintheirpersonalandprofessionallives
Accolades from Our Reviewers
“ThisisthemoststudentfocusedtextthatIhaveeverreadItdealswith
therealworldproblemsthatstudentshavetoovercomeinordertobe
successfulinthecourseThereisnobettertextonthemarket”
—DRBRADLEYSWESNERSAMHOUSTONSTATEUNIVERSITY
“Aperfectblendofbusinessandcommunicationexpertisewritteninan
approachabletonethatusesrealworldexamplestoenhancestudent
engagementandlearning”
—KELLYSTOCKSTADAUSTINCOMMUNITYCOLLEGE
“Fullofrichthoughtfulusefuladviceuptodatewiththecurrentjob
marketEasytoreaduserfriendlyNotanorganizationalcommunication
textitisaperformanceenhancementtext”
—JOHNCARLMEYERUNIVERSITYOFSOUTHERNMISSISSIPPI
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ASSOCIATIONFORBUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
FewendeavorsofanysignificanceareachievedinisolationTherearealwaysotherswho
helpusrisetoandexceedourpotentialinnearlyeverythingwedoWearedelighted
toacknowledgeandthankthosewhosecontributionsandsupportareresponsiblefor
thebookyouarenowreading
Firstandforemostwearegratefulfortheadviceandinputofthebusinessandcom
municationinstructorswhowerekindenoughtoserveasreviewersforthistextTheir
contributionsareinvaluableandwesincerelyappreciatethetimeandenergytheyde
votedtomakingthisbookaseffectiveanduserfriendlyaspossible
Brock Adams, LouisianaStateUniversity
Gretchen Arthur, LansingCommunity
College
Benjamin Clark Bishop Jr.,DesMoinesArea
CommunityCollege
Heidi Bolduc, UniversityofCentralFlorida
Renee Brokaw, UniversityofTampa
Carolyn Cross, HoustonCommunityCollege
Kathryn Dederichs, UniversityofStThomas
Brandy Fair, GraysonCollege
Kristen A. Foltz,UniversityofTampa
Shelley Anne Friend,AustinCommunity
College
Joseph Ganakos, LeeCollege
Karley A. Goen,TarletonStateUniversity
Melissa Graham, UniversityofCentral
Oklahoma
Rebecca Greene, SouthPlainsCollege
Nancy Hicks, CentralMichiganUniversity
Kathy Hill, SamHoustonStateUniversity
Elaine Jansky, NorthwestVistaCollege
Arthur Khaw, KirkwoodCommunityCollege
Jackie Layng, UniversityofToledo
Ronda Leahy, UniversityofWisconsinLa
Crosse
Kirk Lockwood, IllinoisValleyCommunity
College
Donna Metcalf, GreenvilleUniversity
John Meyer, UniversityofSouthernMississippi
Dan Modaff, UniversityofWisconsinLa
Crosse
Steven R. Montemayor,NorthwestVista
College
Bev Neiderman, KentStateUniversity
Kelly Odenweller, IowaStateUniversity
Delia J. O’Steen,TexasTechUniversity
Aimee L. Richards,FairmontStateUniversity
Shera Carter Sackey,SanJacintoCollege
Aaron Sanchez, ArizonaStateUniversity
Sara Shippey, AustinCommunityCollege
Shavonne R. Shorter,BloomsburgUniversity
Michele Simms, UniversityofStThomas
Richard Slawsky, UniversityofLouisville
Ashly Bender Smith,SamHoustonState
University
Ray Snyder, TridentTechnicalCollege
Sherry Stancil, CalhounCommunityCollege
Kerry Strayer, OtterbeinUniversity
John Stewart, UniversityofSouthFlorida
SarasotaManatee
Kelly A. Stockstad,AustinCommunityCollege
Jenny Warren, CollinCollege
Rebecca Wells-Gonzalez, IvyTechCommunity
College
Bradley S. Wesner,SamHoustonStateUniversity
Karin Wilking, NorthwestVistaCollege
Julie A. Williams,SanJacintoCollege
Scott Wilson, CentralOhioTechnicalCollege
Wecouldnotaskforabetterteamofeditorsmanagersandpublisherstoworkwith
thanourteamatMcGrawHillWeareindebtedtoAnkeWeekesKellyPekelderGabe
FedotaPeterJurmuChristineVaughanMattDiamondLisaMooreandSarahBlasco
fortheconsistentprofessionalsupportwehavereceivedfromeachofthem
ElisaAdamsisadevelopmenteditorparexcellenceShemadenearlyeverywordof
thisbookmoreinterestingmorerelevantandmorecompellingthanitwaswhenwe
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wroteitWehavebeenexceedinglygratefulforherinsightsherhumorandherpa
tiencethroughoutthiswritingprocess
OurstudentscolleaguesandadministratorsattheUniversityofArizonaandthe
UniversityofSouthernCaliforniaareajoytoworkwithandatremendoussourceofen
couragementUndertakingaprojectofthissizecanbedauntinganditissovaluableto
haveastrongnetworkofprofessionalsupportonwhichtodraw
Finallyweareeternallygratefulfortheloveandsupportofourfamiliesandfriends
Oneneedn’tbeanexpertoncommunicationtounderstandhowimportantcloserela
tionshipsarebutthemorewelearnaboutcommunicationthemoreappreciativewe
becomeofthepeoplewhoplaythoserolesinourlives
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
Communicating for Professional Success 2
UnderstandingtheCommunicationProcess 
SixPrinciplesofCommunication 
ElementsoftheCommunicationProcess 
CAREER TIP 9
CommunicationinProfessionalNetworks 
NetworkersCommunicateEffectivelyinFormal
ProfessionalNetworks 
NetworkersCommunicateEffectivelyinInformal
ProfessionalNetworks 
NetworkersEmployManyCommunicationChannelsto
StayConnectedtoTheirNetworks 
TECH TIP 11
NetworkersBuildBroadProfessionalCommunication
Networks 
CultivatingCredibility 
CredibleCommunicatorsBuildTrust 
CredibleCommunicatorsDevelopRapport 
CredibleCommunicatorsListenActively 
CredibleCommunicatorsMaintainIntegrity
andAccountability 
PEOPLE FIRST 13
CredibleCommunicatorsKnowandAdapt
toTheirAudiences 
CharacteristicsofSuccessfulCommunicators 
CommunicatingCompetently 
CharacteristicsofSuccessfulCommunicators 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 16
FOCUS ON ETHICS  17
Chapter Wrap-Up 18
A Look Back 18
Key Terms 19
Chapter Review Questions  19
Skill-Building Exercises 20
Endnotes 21
CHAPTER 2
Culture, Diversity, and Global Engagement 24
AppreciatingCultureandHumanDiversity 
CultureandCoculture 
RaceEthnicityandNationality 
SocioeconomicStatus 
DisabilityStatus 
SexGenderandSexuality 
Religion 
GenerationalIdentity 
OtherElementsofIdentityandDiversity 
ConductingBusinessonaGlobalScale 
IdentifyingtheWaysCulturesVary 
CAREER TIP 35
AdaptingtoCulturalNormsandCustoms 
PEOPLE FIRST 39
AddressingDiversityinanEthicalManner 
HonoringYourOwnCulturalValues 
RespectingtheCulturalValuesandDiverseBackgrounds
ofOthers 
SeeingCulturesandDiversityasanOpportunitytoLearn
andGrow 
RecognizingtheIndividualityofOthers 
TECH TIP 41
CommunicatingwithCulturalProficiency 
CultivateCulturalAwareness 
PracticePerspectiveTaking 
AvoidCulturalCentrism 
FOCUS ON ETHICS 43
AdaptingtoChangingCulturalNorms
andExpectations 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 44
Chapter Wrap-Up 44
A Look Back 45
Key Terms 45
Chapter Review Questions 46
Skill-Building Exercises 46
Endnotes 48
CHAPTER 3
Verbal and Nonverbal Messages 50
HowPeopleUseLanguage 
TheNatureofLanguage 
LanguageandCredibility 
FOCUS ON ETHICS  56
FosteringEffectiveVerbalCommunication 
SeparateOpinionsfromFactualClaims 
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xviii CONTENTS
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 58
SpeakatanAppropriateLevel 
OwnYourThoughtsandFeelings 
UsePowerfulLanguage 
CAREER TIP 60
ChannelsofNonverbalMessages 
TheFaceandEyes 
MovementandGestures 
PEOPLE FIRST 62
TouchBehaviors 
VocalBehaviors 
TheUseofSpaceandDistance 
PhysicalAppearance 
TheUseofTime 
TECH TIP 66
TheUseofArtifacts 
ImprovingYourNonverbalCommunicationSkills 
InterpretingNonverbalCommunication 
ExpressingNonverbalMessages 
Chapter Wrap-Up 69
A Look Back 70
Key Terms 70
Chapter Review Questions 70
Skill-Building Exercises 71
Endnotes 72
CHAPTER 4
Listening and Learning 74
EffectiveListeningandLearning 
WhatIsListening? 
TheImportanceofListeningEffectively 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 78
StagesandStylesofEffectiveListening 
StagesofEffectiveListening 
TypesofListening 
OvercomingBarrierstoSuccessfulListening 
Noise 
PseudolisteningandSelectiveAttention 
TECH TIP 84
InformationOverload 
FOCUS ON ETHICS  85
GlazingOver 
RebuttalTendency 
PEOPLE FIRST 87
ClosedMindedness 
CompetitiveInterrupting 
CAREER TIP 89
HoningYourListeningandLearningSkills 
BecomeaBetterInformationalListener 
BecomeaBetterCriticalListener 
BecomeaBetterEmpathicListener 
Chapter Wrap-Up  94
A Look Back 94
Key Terms  95
Chapter Review Questions 95
Skill-Building Exercises 95
Endnotes 96
CHAPTER 5
Perspective Taking 100
HowWePerceiveOthers 
PerceptionIsaProcess 
TheCircularNatureofPerception 
WeCommonlyMisperceiveOthers’
CommunicationBehaviors 
PEOPLE FIRST 107
CAREER TIP 109
CommunicatingandExplainingOur
Perceptions 
WeExplainBehaviorthroughAttributions 
AvoidingTwoCommonAttributionErrors 
HowWePerceiveOurselves 
SelfConceptDefined 
AwarenessoftheSelfConcept 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 114
ManagingOurImage 
CommunicationandImageManagement 
FOCUS ON ETHICS  117
TECH TIP 118
CommunicationandFaceNeeds 
Chapter Wrap-Up 120
A Look Back 121
Key Terms 121
Chapter Review Questions 121
Skill-Building Exercises 122
Endnotes 123
CHAPTER 6
Effective Team Communication 126
DevelopingEffectiveTeams 
TeamsVaryinSeveralDimensions 
TeamsGothroughFourNatural
StagestoReachHighPerformance 
EffectiveTeamsBuildaWork
CulturearoundValuesNormsandGoals 
EvaluatingTeamPerformance 
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FOCUS ON ETHICS 132
TeamsShouldFocusFirstand
ForemostonPerformance 
EffectiveTeamsMeetOften 
EffectiveTeamsEmbrace
DifferingViewpointsandConflict 
EffectiveTeamsLearntheCommunication
StylesandPreferencesofTheirMembers 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 135
CAREER TIP 136
EffectiveTeamsProvidePositiveFeedbackandEvaluate
TheirPerformanceOften 
LeadershipandDecisionMakingStyles 
LeadersEnactDistinctStyles 
LeadersManageConflictConstructively 
LeadersAvoidGroupthink 
PEOPLE FIRST 141
LeadersListenCarefully 
TECH TIP 144
PrinciplesforVirtualTeamCommunication 
FocusonBuildingTrustatEachStage
ofYourVirtualTeam 
MeetinPersonattheLaunchoftheVirtualTeam 
GettoKnowOneAnother 
UseCollaborativeTechnologies 
ChooseanActiveTeamLeader 
RunEffectiveVirtualMeetings 
Chapter Wrap-Up 147
A Look Back 148
Key Terms 148
Chapter Review Questions 149
Skill-Building Exercises 149
Endnotes 150
CHAPTER 7
Effective Meetings 152
PlanningforMeetings 
AskEssentialQuestions 
CreateandDistributeanAgenda 
FOCUS ON ETHICS 156
RunningEffectiveMeetings 
BeginonTime 
CreateTraditionCultureandVariety 
SetExpectationsandFollowtheAgenda 
EncourageParticipationandExpressionofIdeas 
BuildConsensusandaPlanofAction 
PEOPLE FIRST 159
ClosetheMeeting 
TECH TIP 161
ConductingEffectiveOnlineMeetings 
LearntheFunctionsand
LimitationsofMeetingSoftware 
HelpParticipantsUsetheMeetingSoftware 
DecideHowtoDocumentand
DistributetheDiscussion 
StarttheMeetingwithSocial
ChatoraLivelyQuestion 
AvoidMultitasking 
CAREER TIP 163
UseVideoWhenPossible 
ManagingDifficultConversations 
CASE STUDY 164
EmbraceDifficultConversations 
AssumetheBestinOthers 
AdoptaLearningStance 
StayCalmandOvercomeNoise 
FindCommonGround 
DisagreeDiplomatically 
AvoidExaggerationandEither/OrApproaches 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 167
InitiatetheConversationShareStoriesandFocuson
Solutions 
Chapter Wrap-Up 169
A Look Back 169
Key Terms 169
Chapter Review Questions 170
Skill-Building Exercises 170
Endnotes 172
CHAPTER 8
Career Communication 174
GoalSettingandIntentionalityinCareer
Development 
TECH TIP 177
ProfessionalNetworking 
ConductInformationalInterviews 
AttendJobFairsandOtherCareer
NetworkingEvents 
AttendCampusSpeechesandOther
ProfessionalDevelopmentEvents 
JoinClubsandOtherProfessionalInterestGroups 
VolunteerataLocalNonprofit 
CAREER TIP 180
PreparingaRésuméandCoverLetter 
SetUptheMessageStructurefor
RésumésandCoverLetters 
PayAttentiontoToneStyleandDesign 
FOCUS ON ETHICS 185
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 187
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xx CONTENTS
CreateChronologicalandFunctionalRésumés 
PreparingRésumésforElectronicScreening 
DevelopaReferenceList 
ConstructaCoverLetter 
PEOPLE FIRST 193
DevelopingYourOnlineProfessionalPersona 
ProvideaProfessionalPhoto 
CreateaPersonalizedURL 
CompletetheSummarySpace 
UseMultimedia 
ChooseSectionsWisely 
ManageYourRecommendationsand
EndorsementsStrategically 
BuildaNetworkofImportantConnections 
ShowSomePersonalityandBePositive 
MaintainaGiverMentality 
StayActiveonLinkedIn 
Chapter Wrap-Up 199
A Look Back 200
Key Terms 200
Chapter Review Questions 201
Skill-Building Exercises 201
Endnotes 203
CHAPTER 9
Interviewing Successfully 204
PreparingforaSuccessfulInterview 
WhatIsanInterview? 
TypesofInterviews 
ConductingaJobSearch 
CAREER TIP 208
DisplayingYourBestSelfduringaJobInterview 
TECH TIP 211
PayAttentiontoAppearanceandEtiquette 
DistinguishbetweenTypesofQuestions 
RespondEffectivelytoInterviewQuestions 
FOCUS ON ETHICS 217
PEOPLE FIRST 219
SucceedinWebConferenceInterviews 
DoSeveralTrialRuns 
MakeSureYourProfileCreatestheRight
Impressions 
LookProfessional 
TidyYourRoomorOffice 
LookDirectlyattheCamera 
SmileandExpressYourselfNonverbally 
UseNotesStrategically 
AvoidDistractions
 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 222
FollowingUpaftertheJobInterview 
SendingaThankYouNote 
ContactingtheInterviewer 
Chapter Wrap-Up 224
A Look Back 224
Key Terms 225
Chapter Review Questions 225
Skill-Building Exercises 225
Endnotes 226
CHAPTER 10
Writing across Media 228
CreatingEffectiveEmails 
UseEmailfortheRightPurposes 
EnsureEaseofReading 
ShowRespectforOthers’Time 
PEOPLE FIRST 234
ProtectPrivacyandConfidentiality 
RespondPromptly 
MaintainProfessionalismand
AppropriateFormality 
TECH TIP 236
ManageEmotionandMaintainCivility 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 240
WorkingonInternalDigitalPlatforms 
FollowYourCompany’sDigital
CommunicationandSocialMediaGuidelines 
CAREER TIP 241
OrganizeYourDashboardtoControlYour
CommunicationandInformationFlow 
CreateaCompleteandProfessionalProfile 
UseBlogsandStatusUpdatesforTeam
Communication 
UseSharedFilestoCollaborate 
SolveProblemswithDiscussionForums 
WritingforExternalAudienceson
SocialMedia 
WritingPostsforYourOrganization 
WritingPostsforaProfessionalBlog 
GeneralGuidelinesforUsing
SocialMediaintheWorkplace 
FOCUS ON ETHICS 253
Chapter Wrap-Up 253
A Look Back 254
Key Terms 254
Chapter Review Questions 254
Skill-Building Exercises 255
Endnotes 256
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CHAPTER 11
Major Goals for Presentations 258
KnowtheTypesofProfessionalPresentations 
SpeechestoInform 
SpeechestoPersuade 
SpeechestoIntroduce 
GroupPresentations 
PEOPLE FIRST 263
SpecialOccasionSpeeches 
ChooseanAppropriateTopic 
BrainstormtoIdentifyPotentialTopics 
IdentifyTopicsThatAreRightforYou 
IdentifyTopicsThatAreRightforYourAudience 
CAREER TIP 267
IdentifyTopicsThatAreRightfortheOccasion 
TECH TIP 268
AnalyzeYourAudience 
Age 
SexandSexualOrientation 
Culture 
EconomicStatus 
FOCUS ON ETHICS 271
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 272
PhysicalandMentalCapabilities 
PoliticalOrientation 
ConsidertheSpeakingContext 
Purpose 
Size 
AvailableTime 
Distractions 
PriorKnowledgeofYourTopic 
Chapter Wrap-Up 274
A Look Back 275
Key Terms 275
Chapter Review Questions 275
Skill-Building Exercises 276
Endnotes 277
CHAPTER 12
Planning and Crafting Presentations 278
ArticulateYourPurposeandThesis 
DraftaPurposeStatement 
CAREER TIP 282
DraftaThesisStatement 
FOCUS ON ETHICS 283
OrganizetheBodyofYourSpeech 
DetermineYourMainPoints 
OrganizeYourMainPointsStrategically 
UseSubpointstoSupportYourMainPoints 
CreatingaCompelling
IntroductionandConclusion 
CraftaMemorableIntroduction 
CreateanEffectiveConclusion 
PEOPLE FIRST 292
TECH TIP 294
UsingTransitionsEffectively 
SomeTransitionsPreviewand
InternallySummarize 
SomeTransitionsAreSignposts 
SomeTransitionsAreNonverbal 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 296
Chapter Wrap-Up 297
A Look Back 297
Key Terms 297
Chapter Review Questions 298
Skill-Building Exercises 298
Endnotes 299
CHAPTER 13
Finding Support for Your Presentation Goals 300
UnderstandWhereandWhyYouNeedSupport 
IdentifyPlacesWhereYouNeedResearchSupport 
DeterminetheTypeofSupportYouRequire 
EvaluateSupportingMaterial 
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 306
KnowWheretoFindInformation 
Websites 
Books 
CAREER TIP 309
PeriodicalsandNonprintMaterials 
Databases 
PersonalObservations 
Surveys 
MasteringPresentationAids 
PresentationAidsCanEnhanceYourSpeech 
LowTechPresentationAids 
TECH TIP 314
MultimediaPresentationAids 
ChoosingandUsingPresentationAids 
UsingSupportingMaterialEthically 
CauseNoHarm 
Don’tCommitIntellectualTheft 
FOCUS ON ETHICS  319
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xxii CONTENTS
PEOPLE FIRST 320
Chapter Wrap-Up 321
A Look Back 321
Key Terms 322
Chapter Review Questions 322
Skill-Building Exercises 322
Endnotes 323
CHAPTER 14
Rehearsing and Delivering Successful
Presentations 324
ChooseYourDeliveryFormat 
SomeSpeechesAreImpromptu 
SomeSpeechesAreExtemporaneous 
SomeSpeechesAreScripted 
SomeSpeechesAreMemorized 
RecordedSpeeches 
RehearsingEffectiveDelivery 
VisualElementsAffectDelivery 
CAREER TIP 331
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 333
VocalElementsAffectDelivery 
CulturalNormsAffectPreferredDeliveryStyles 
ManagingPublicSpeakingAnxiety 
PublicSpeakingAnxietyIsaCommonformof
Stress 
PEOPLE FIRST 337
PublicSpeakingAnxietyCanBeDebilitating 
MakingPublicSpeakingAnxiety
anAdvantage 
TECH TIP 340
FOCUS ON ETHICS 341
CreatingPresenceandProjectingConfidence 
GetComfortablewithYourAudience 
ChooseWordsThatFocusonPeople 
StayFlexibleandCalm 
UsetheRoomtoYourAdvantage 
EngageYourAudience 
Chapter Wrap-Up 347
A Look Back 348
Key Terms 348
Chapter Review Questions 348
Skill-Building Exercises 349
Endnotes 351
Glossary 355
Index 363
Design elements: Title page image: ©gobyg/Getty Images
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LearningObjectives
Afterreadingthischapteryoushould
beabletodothefollowing
LO Illustratehowselectionorganization
andinterpretationoccurduring
perception
LO Explainthereasonswhypeople
commitperceptualerrors
LO Differentiateselfservingbiasand
fundamentalattributionerror
LO Explainhowthenatureofself
conceptispartiallysubjective
LO Describethreepathwaysthrough
whichselfconceptcanshape
communicativebehavior
LO Identifythewaysinwhichimage
managementiscollaborative
involvesthemanagementofmultiple
identitiesandiscomplex
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
CHAPTER 5
Perspective
Taking
L
izsatinthebreakroomwithCalebaclosecolleague“I’msofrustrated
withAishaWejustmissedourdeadlinewithaclientbecauseshetook
toomuchtimecreatingthegraphicsBythetimeshegavethemtome
IhadonlyonedaytofinishtheupdatestoourwebsiteWithallthemeetings
thatwerescheduledthatdaytherewasnowayformetofinishintimeAisha
simplydoesn’tcarewhenwemissthesedeadlines”
Calebreplied“Don’tworryaboutitIt’snotyourfaultyoualwaysgetthe
jobdoneunlessoneofthegraphicsdesignersdropstheballGraphicsdesign
ersworrymoreaboutgettingawardsthanaboutgivingtheclientswhatthey
want”
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 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
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We have an ongoing need to make sense of other people. Especially when they act
in ways that are surprising or disappointing—as Aisha did by taking so long to cre-
ate graphics for Liz—our natural tendency is to come up with explanations for their
behaviors. Liz explained Aisha’s behavior by perceiving that Aisha doesn’t care when
deadlines are missed, whereas Caleb perceived that all graphics designers—including
Aisha—are more interested in winning accolades than in pleasing their clients.
We come up with perceptions about other people, and even about ourselves, all
the time. What’s more, many of us assume our perceptions are accurate reflections
of reality, and we communicate on the basis of those perceptions without recogniz-
ing that they may be inaccurate or incomplete. Liz and Caleb may be correct in per-
ceiving that Aisha doesn’t care about their deadlines or their satisfaction with her
work—but they may also be wrong. As we’ll discover in this chapter, our perceptions
of people, including ourselves, are susceptible to a wide range of influences that can
distort their accuracy. Before we act on the basis of our perceptions, therefore, it is
critical to recognize that we don’t always see things the way they are.
HowWePerceiveOthers
Before going on a job interview, applicants may practice introducing themselves, pre-
pare answers to anticipated questions, and consider clothing options to refine their
look. As we’ll discuss later in this book, all these preparations are worthwhile because
they help you put your best self forward. Job candidates may be disappointed, how-
ever, to learn that interviewers often make up their minds about someone within
the first few minutes.
1
Although that may seem too short a period to make a serious
hiring decision, research indicates that people are surprisingly accurate at evaluating
others after very brief periods of time. In fact, some studies have shown that our
impressions and evaluations of others can be more accurate if we have less—rather
than more—information to go on.
2
We form these impressions and evaluations by engaging in perception, the pro-
cess of making meaning from what we experience in the world around us. We notice
physical experiences—such as fatigue, body aches, and congestion—and perceive that
we are ill. We notice environmental experiences—such as cold air, wind, and rain—
and perceive that a storm is under way. When we apply the same process to people,
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Inbothpersonaland
professionalsettingswehave
anongoingneedtomake
senseofothers
©XiXinXing/AlamyStockPhoto
How we Perceive otHers 
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 103 01/08/19 12:45 PM
we engage in interpersonal perception, which helps us make meaning from our own
and others’ behaviors.
3
As social beings, we are constantly engaged in interpersonal perception. Although
our perceptions may seem to take shape instantaneously, we will find in this section
that they actually form in stages, although quickly. We will also see that several fac-
tors can influence the accuracy of our perceptions, including culture, stereotypes,
primacy and recency effects, and perceptual sets.
PERCEPTIONISAPROCESS
We usually select, organize, and interpret information so quickly and subconsciously
that we think our perceptions are objective, factual reflections of the world. Suppose
you had a conflict this morning with an intern you are training, and throughout
the day he failed to respond to your text messages reminding him to post an update
about your charity donation drive on your organization’s Facebook page. You might
believe he is ignoring you because he is not replying. However, you have created your
perception based on the information you selected for attention (he doesn’t respond),
the way you organized that information (he is angry about your conflict), and the way
you interpreted it (he’s ignoring you).
4
In fact, you might also perceive that he is hav-
ing an extremely busy day or that he left his cell phone in his car. The perception you
form depends on which pieces of information you attend to, how you organize them
in your mind, and how you interpret their meaning.
As Figure 5.1 shows, selection, organization, and interpretation are the three basic
stages of perception. Let’s examine each in turn.
LO
Illustratehowselection
organizationand
interpretationoccurduring
perception
Selection is the first stage. Perception is initiated when one or more of your
senses are stimulated. You hear a customer placing her order in a store. You see a
puppy chewing on an old tennis ball. You smell a co-worker’s cologne. Those sensory
experiences of hearing, seeing, and smelling can prompt you to form perceptions.
Your senses are constantly stimulated by events in your environment, but it’s
impossible to pay attention to all these stimuli at any given moment.
5
Instead, you
engage in selection, the process by which your mind and body help you isolate cer-
tain stimuli to pay attention to. For example, you notice that your officemate left the
lights on all night, but you overlook that he brought you lunch when you were over-
whelmed with work. Clearly, the information we attend to influences the perceptions
we form, although we don’t necessarily make conscious choices about what to ignore.
Selection
Organization
Interpretation
You pay a ention
to a stimulus
You categorize
the stimulus
You determine
what the stimulus
means to you
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Figure 5.1
ThreeStagesof
Perception
Perceptionoccursinthree
stagesselectionorganiza
tionandinterpretation
 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
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How, then, does selection occur? Research indicates that three characteristics make a
given stimulus more likely to be selected for attention.
First, being unusual or unexpected makes a stimulus stand out.
6
You might not pay
attention to people talking loudly in a restaurant, but in the library the same loud con-
versation would grab your attention because it is unusual there. Second, repetition or
frequency makes a stimulus stand out.
7
For example, you’re more likely to remember
television commercials you’ve seen repeatedly than those you’ve seen only once. Third,
the intensity of a stimulus affects how much you take notice of it. You are more aware of
strong odors than weak scents, and of bright and flashy colors than dull and muted hues.
8
How do we avoid becoming overwhelmed by so much sensory information? A part of
your brain called the reticular formation serves the important function of helping you focus
on certain stimuli while ignoring others.
9
It is the primary reason why, when having a
conversation with a colleague in a noisy coffee shop, you can focus on what your colleague
is saying and tune out the other sights and sounds bombarding your senses at the time.
Organization is the second stage. Once you have noticed a particular stimulus,
the next step in the perception process is organization, the classification of informa-
tion according to its similarities to and differences from other things you know about.
To classify a stimulus, your mind applies a perceptual schema to it, a mental frame-
work for organizing information into categories we call constructs.
According to communication researcher Peter Andersen, we use four types of
schema to classify information we notice about other people:
10
1. Physical constructs emphasize people’s appearance, causing us to notice objective
characteristics such as height, age, ethnicity, and body shape, as well as subjec-
tive characteristics such as physical attractiveness.
2. Role constructs emphasize people’s social or professional position, so we notice
that a person is a sales rep, an accountant, a stepmother, and so on.
11
3. Interaction constructs emphasize people’s behavior, so we notice that a person is
outgoing, aggressive, shy, or considerate.
4. Psychological constructs emphasize people’s thoughts and feelings, such as anger,
self-assurances, insecurity, or lightheartedness.
Whichever constructs we notice about people—and we may notice more than one
at a time—the process of organization helps us identify how the items we select for
attention are related to one another.
12
If you notice that your human resources direc-
tor is a Little League softball coach and the father of three children, for example,
those two pieces of information go together because they both relate to the roles he
plays. If you notice that he seems irritated or angry, those pieces of information go
together as examples of his psychological state.
Interpretation is the final stage. After noticing and classifying a stimulus, you
have to assign it an interpretation to figure out its meaning for you. Let’s say one of
your co-workers has been especially friendly toward you since last week. She asks
you how your current project is going, and she offers to run errands for you over her
lunch break. Her behavior is definitely noticeable, and you’ve probably classified it as
a psychological construct because it relates to her thoughts and feelings about you.
What is her behavior communicating? How should you interpret it? Is she being
nice because she’s getting ready to ask you for a big favor? Or, is she simply trying to
look good in front of her manager because she is hoping for a promotion?
To address those questions, you likely will pay attention to three factors: your
personal experience, your knowledge of this co-worker, and the closeness of your rela-
tionship with her. First, your personal experience helps you assign meaning to
behavior. If some co-workers have been nice to you in the past just to get favors from
you later, you might be suspicious of this person’s behavior.
13
Second, your knowl-
edge of the person helps you interpret her actions. If you know she’s friendly and
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How we Perceive otHers 
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 105 01/08/19 12:45 PM
nice to everyone, you might interpret her behavior differently than if you notice she’s
being nice only to you.
14
Finally, the closeness of your relationship influences the way
you interpret a person’s behavior. When your best friend does you an unexpected
favor, you probably interpret it as a sincere sign of friendship. With a co-worker, you
may be more likely to wonder about an ulterior motive.
15
THECIRCULARNATUREOFPERCEPTION
Although perception occurs in stages—selecting, organizing, and interpreting
information—the stages all overlap.
16
Thus, for example, the way we interpret a com-
munication behavior depends on what we notice about it, but what we notice can also
depend on the way we interpret it.
Suppose you are listening to a speech by the regional vice president of your com-
pany. If you like her ideas and proposals, you might interpret her demeanor and
speaking style as examples of her intelligence and confidence. If you oppose her
ideas, however, you might believe her demeanor and speaking style reflect arrogance
or incompetence. Either interpretation, in turn, might lead you to select for attention
only those behaviors or characteristics that support your interpretation and to ignore
those that do not. So, even though perception happens in stages, the stages don’t
always take place in the same order. We’re constantly noticing, organizing, and inter-
preting things around us, including other people’s behaviors.
WECOMMONLYMISPERCEIVEOTHERS’
COMMUNICATIONBEHAVIORS
Although we get a lot of opportunities to practice perception, mistakes are easy to
make. Imagine that during an overseas sales trip, you perceive that two adults you
see in a restaurant are having a heated argument. As it turns out, you later discover
they are not arguing but engaging in behaviors that, in their culture, communicate
interest and involvement.
LO
Explainthereasonswhy
peoplecommitperceptual
errors
Why do we commit such a perceptual error despite our accumulated experience?
The reason is that each of us has multiple lenses through which we perceive the world.
As we’ll see below, those lenses include our cultural and co-cultural backgrounds,
stereotypes, primacy and recency effects, and our perceptual sets. In each case, those
lenses have the potential to influence not only our own communication behaviors but
also our perceptions of the communication of others.
Cultures and co-cultures influence perceptions. One powerful influence on
the accuracy of our perceptions is the culture and co-cultures with which we iden-
tify. Recall from Chapter 2 that culture is
the learned, shared symbols, language, val-
ues, and norms that distinguish one group
of people—such as Russians, South Africans,
or Thais—from another. Co-cultures are
smaller groups of people—such as single par-
ents, bloggers, and history enthusiasts—who
share values, customs, and norms related to
mutual interests or characteristics besides
their national citizenship.
Many characteristics of cultures can influ-
ence our perceptions and interpretations of
other people’s behaviors.
17
For instance, peo-
ple from individualistic cultures frequently
engage in more direct, overt forms of con-
flict communication than do people from
collectivistic cultures. In a conflict, then, an
Cultureisoneofmany
influencesonour
perceptionsofothers
©sjenner/RF
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 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 106 01/08/19 12:45 PM
individualist might perceive a collectivist’s communication behaviors as conveying
weakness, passivity, or a lack of interest. Likewise, the collectivist may perceive the
individualist’s communication patterns as overly aggressive or self-centered, even
though each person is communicating in a way that is normal in his or her culture.
Co-cultural differences can also influence perceptions of communication. Younger
workers might perceive their older supervisors’ advice as outdated or irrelevant,
whereas the supervisors may perceive their younger workers’ indifference to their
advice as naive.
18
Likewise, liberals and conservatives may each see the other’s com-
munication messages as rooted in ignorance.
Stereotypes influence perceptions. A stereotype is a generalization about a
group or category of people that can have a powerful influence on the way we perceive
others and their communication behavior.
19
Stereotyping is a three-part process:
●
First, we identify a group to which we believe another person belongs (“you are
an accountant”).
●
Second, we recall a generalization others often make about the people in that
group (“accountants have no sense of humor”).
●
Finally, we apply that generalization to the person (“therefore, you must have no
sense of humor”).
You can probably think of stereotypes for many groups. What stereotypes come
to mind for people with physical or mental disabilities? Wealthy people? Science
fiction fans? Immigrants? What stereotypes come to mind when you think about
yourself?
Many people find stereotyping distasteful or unethical, particularly when ste-
reotypes have to do with characteristics such as sex, race, and sexual orientation.
20
Unquestionably, because it underestimates the differences among individuals in
a group, stereotyping can lead to inaccurate, even offensive, perceptions of other
people. It may be true, for instance, that women are more emotionally sensitive
than men, but that doesn’t mean every woman is emotionally sensitive. Similarly,
people of Asian descent may often be more studious than those from other ethnic
groups, but not every Asian is a good student, and not all Asians do equally well
in school.
21
Although perceptions based on stereotypes are often inaccurate, they aren’t neces-
sarily so.
22
For example, consider the stereotype that women love taking care of chil-
dren. Not every woman enjoys taking care of children, but some do. Before assuming
your perceptions of others are correct, get to know those people, and let your percep-
tions be guided by what you learn about them as individuals rather than as members
of a group. That advice is especially useful when you find yourself in conflict with
someone you disagree with, as the “People First” box explains.
Primacy and recency effects influence perceptions. As the saying goes, you
get only one chance to make a good first impression. According to a principle called
the primacy effect, first impressions are critical because they set the tone for all
future interactions.
23
Our first impressions of someone’s communication behaviors
seem to stick in our mind more than our second, third, or fourth impressions do. In
an early study of the primacy effect, psychologist Solomon Asch found that a person
described as “intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, and envious” was
evaluated more favorably than one described as “envious, stubborn, critical, impul-
sive, industrious, and intelligent.”
24
Notice that most of those adjectives are negative,
but when the description begins with a positive adjective (intelligent), the effects of
the more negative ones that follow it are diminished.
Asch’s study illustrates that the first information we learn about someone tends to
have a stronger effect on how we perceive that person than information we receive
later.
25
That finding explains why we work so hard to communicate competently
during a job interview, on a date, or in other important situations. When people
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How we Perceive otHers 
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PEOPLE FIRST
Being Aware of Stereotypes
IMAGINETHISWhileonyourbreakatworkyouandyour
colleagueKarinaarediscussingyourcompanypresident’s
recentpublicstatementaboutimmigrationKarina’scom
mentsleadyoutorealizethatyouhavestronglyopposing
opinionsOneofyoufeelsundocumentedworkerswaste
taxpayers’moneybyusing social serviceswithout
defrayingtheircostTheotherbelievesevery
one deserves to share in the “American
dream”andthatsomeUSindustriessuch
as agriculture and construction employ
largenumbersofundocumentedworkers
YoufindKarina’sopinionsinfuriating
andwonderaloudhowshecanpossibly
thinkthewayshedoesShewondersthe
sameaboutyouandsoonyourconversa
tionhasturnedintoanargumentwitheach
ofyoucallingtheother’sbeliefsignorantanddan
gerousYoubothgobacktoworkangryandfrustrated
NowconsiderthisYourconflictwithKarinawasbased
partly on your differing opinions about immigration
Howeveritlikelywasalsoinfluencedbyyourperceptions
ofeachotherInparticularonceyourealizedthediffer
enceinyourpositionsyoumayhavestereotypedeach
otheras“conservative”or“liberal”Doingsomayhaveled
youtomakeinaccurateassumptionsabouttheotherand
to consider yourself openminded while dismissing the
otherperson’sargumentsasuninformed
● Thefirststepinkeepingstereotypesfrominfluenc
ingyourperceptionsisawarenessBecauseKarina’s
positiondiffersfromyoursdoyouassumesheis
narrowmindedornaive?Doyoupresupposeany
thingaboutherbackgroundorexperiences?
● Ifyoudorecognizeassumptionsyouaremaking
aboutKarinaremindyourselfthatstereotypes
areofteninaccuratewhenappliedtoindividuals
Itmaybetruethatpeoplewithliberalandconser
vativeviewpointshavedifferentbackgrounds
andlifeexperiencesbutthatdoesn’t
necessarilymeaneveryconservative
personisthesamenoreveryliberal
person
● InsteadofdismissingKarina’sargu
mentsaswrongaskherwhyshefeelsas
shedoesandlistentoheranswerwith
anopenmindYoumayfindherpositions
wellinformedandlogicalevenifyoudis
agreewiththem
Stereotypescan easily influence our perceptions of
othersevenwithoutourbeingawareItleadsustothink
superficiallyaboutothersandtheirideaswhichcanmake
itdifficultforustoprioritizepeopleabovethedisagree
mentswemayhavewiththem
THINKABOUTTHIS
Whydoyouthinkstereotyping issoeasytodo
and so challenging to combat? W
hen haveyour
stereotypesaboutotherindividualsturnedoutto
beinaccurateinthepast?
evaluate us favorably at first, they are more likely to perceive us in a positive light
from then on.
26
Stand-up comedians will tell you, however, that the two most important jokes in a
show are the first and the last. That advice follows a principle known as the recency
effect, which says that the most recent impression we have of a person’s communica-
tion is more powerful than our earlier impressions.
27
Which is more important, the first or the most recent impression? The answer is
that both appear to be more important than any impressions we form in between.
28
To
grasp this key point, consider the last significant conversation you had with someone.
You probably have a better recollection of how the conversation started and ended
than you do of what was communicated in between. Figure 5.2 illustrates the relation-
ship between the primacy effect and the recency effect by showing how our first and
most recent impressions of people overshadow our other perceptions of them.
Perceptual sets influence perceptions. “I’ll believe it when I see it,” people
often say. However, our perception of reality is influenced by more than what we see.
 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 108 01/08/19 12:45 PM
Stereotypingcanbeeasyto
dobutperceptionsformed
onthebasisofstereotypes
areofteninaccurateWhat
stereotypescometomind
whenyouseethepeoplein
thesephotos?
Top©AndreaDeMartin/RF
bottomleft©tixti/RF
bottomright
©jenjen/Getty
Images
Our biases, expectations, and desires can create what psychologists call a perceptual
set, or a predisposition to perceive only what we want or expect to perceive.
29
An
equally valid motto might therefore be “I’ll see it when I believe it.”
For example, our perceptual set regarding gender guides the way we perceive and
interact with newborns. Without the help of a contextual cue such as blue or pink
baby clothes, we sometimes have a hard time telling whether a dressed infant is male
or female. However, research shows that if we’re told an infant’s name is David, we
perceive that child to be stronger and bigger than if the same infant is called, say,
Diana.
30
Our perceptual set tells us that male infants are usually bigger and stronger
than female ones, so we “see” a bigger, stronger baby when we’re told it’s a boy. Our
perceptions can then affect our communication behavior: we may also hold and talk
to the “female” baby in softer, quieter ways than we do with the “male” baby.
Our perceptual set also influences how we make sense of people, circumstances,
and events. Deeply religious individuals may talk about healings as miracles or
answers to prayer, whereas others may describe them as natural responses to medica-
tion.
31
Highly homophobic people are more likely than others to perceive affectionate
communication between men as sexual in nature.
32
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communicating and exPlaining our PercePtions 
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 109 01/08/19 12:45 PM
CAREER TIP
M
any people recognizeAndre Iguodala as a star pro
fessional basketball player who has contributed to
multipleNBA championships Fewer people mayknow of
hisotherprofessionalaccomplishmentsasasuccessfultech
venturecapitalist and soughtafterspeakerabout leader
shipandtechnology
Iguodalahas overcome many stereotypes and misper
ceptionsaboutathletesandtheiraptitudeforbusinessven
turesAsheexplained“ItrytoletthepeopleIdobusiness
withoffthecourtknowthatI’mseriousaboutmybusiness
offthecourtSoItrynottomixthetwoIwantthemto
knowthatI’mseriousaboutwhatI’mdoingandit’sapriority
tome”

Iguodala has overcome the primacy effect most peo
ple’sfirstimpressionsofhimareasabasketballplayerto
demonstrate his talent for business He networks among
insiders in the tech industry He spends hours each day
learningaboutthelatesttrendsinbusinessandtechnology
Hegrillspotentialbusinesspartnersanddemonstrateshis
thoroughbackgroundinthetechindustryHeactivelyseeks
out speaking opportunities at technology events and has
gainedareputationasaninnovativethinkerandleader

Iguodala’sawarenessof the wayhe maybeperceived
has helped him intentionally develop his skills and com
municateinwaysthatmakealastingimpressionbasedon
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AndreIguodala
©DrewAltizer/SipaPress/SanFrancisco/CA/UnitedStates
his most recent encounters in business recency effect
Identify the misperceptions others may have of you and
thenlookforopportunitiestochallengethosemispercep
tionsIfyoubelieveothersseeyouaslackinginitiativefor
instancevolunteertoleadaworkteamororganizeanafter
worksocialeventIfothersperceivethatyou’renotateam
playermakeapointtoaskcoworkersfortheirinputona
projectorinvitethemtobrainstormwithyouonaproblem
LikeIguodalayoucanthenfindwaystoreinventyourselfas
yourcareerinterestschangeorexpand
Perception is a complex process. As we will
discover in the next section, we are vulnerable to
mistakes not only when we form perceptions but
also when we try to explain what we perceive.
Communicatingand
ExplainingOurPerceptions
Suppose you’re meeting with a committee at work
that is focused on restructuring the employee
evaluation process. In the middle of your discus-
sion, your supervisor enters the room, walks over
to your co-worker Erika, and whispers something
to her. Erika’s eyes start to water immediately, and
then she gets up from the table and follows your
supervisor out of the room. The rest of you stare
at each other, wondering what just happened. Did
Erika just receive some upsetting news? Was she
tearing up because she was happy about what
your supervisor told her?
Figure 5.2
PrimacyandRecencyEffects
Ourfirstimpressionsandourmostrecentimpressionsaremore
importantthanthosethatcomeinbetween
First
Second Third Fourth ecent
 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 110 01/08/19 12:45 PM
When we perceive social behavior, especially behavior we find surprising, our
nearly automatic reaction is to try to make sense of it.
35
We need to understand what
is happening to know how to react. After all, if you perceive that someone is commu-
nicating out of anger or jealousy, you will react differently than if you perceive the
motivation is humor or sarcasm. Our ability to explain social behavior—including our
own—helps us perceive our social world. In this section, we will see that we explain
behaviors by forming attributions for them, and we will discover how to avoid two of
the most common errors people make when doing so.
WEEXPLAINBEHAVIORTHROUGHATTRIBUTIONS
An attribution is an explanation of an observed behavior, the answer to the question
“Why did this occur?”
36
Attributions tend to vary along three important dimensions:
locus, stability, and controllability.
37
Attributions vary in locus. Locus describes the place where the cause of a behav-
ior is “located,” whether within or outside ourselves.
38
Some of our behaviors have
internal loci (the plural of locus), meaning they’re caused by a particular characteristic
of ourselves. Other behaviors have external loci, meaning they are caused by some-
thing outside ourselves. If your boss is late for your 9 a.m. performance review, an
internal attribution you might make about her is that she has lost track of time or
she’s making you wait on purpose. In other words, it is something about her that is
making her late. An external attribution is that the traffic is heavy or an earlier meet-
ing she is attending has run long.
Attributions vary in stability. A second dimension of attributions is whether the
cause of a behavior is stable or unstable.
39
A stable cause is one that is permanent,
semipermanent, or at least not easily changed. Why was your boss late? Rush hour
traffic is a stable cause for lateness because it’s a permanent feature of many peo-
ple’s morning commute. The attribution that she is rarely punctual would likewise
be stable because it identifies an enduring aspect of her behavior. In contrast, a traf-
fic accident or an overly long morning meeting would be an unstable cause of your
boss’s lateness because those events occur only from time to time and are largely
unpredictable.
SHARPEN YOUR SKILLS
Attribution Making
WorkingwithapartnerorinasmallgroupconsiderErika’sreac
tion to what your manager told her and generate an attribu
tionforherreactionthatisinternalandstableThengenerate
anattributionthatisexternalandunstableFinallygeneratean
attributionthatisinternalandunstableTakenoteofwhichattri
butionsareeasiertogeneratethanothers
Attributions vary in controllability.
Finally, causes for behavior vary in how
controllable they are.
40
You make a con-
trollable attribution for someone’s behavior
when you believe the cause was under that
person’s control. In contrast, an uncontrol-
lable attribution identifies a cause beyond
the person’s control. If you perceive that
your boss is late for your appointment
because she has spent too much time
socializing with other co-workers before-
hand, that is a controllable attribution
because socializing is under her control.
Alternatively, if you perceive she’s late because she was in a car accident on the way
to work, that is an uncontrollable attribution because she couldn’t help but be late if
she wrecked her car.
LO
Differentiateselfservingbias
andfundamentalattribution
error
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AVOIDINGTWOCOMMONATTRIBUTIONERRORS
Although most of us probably try to generate accurate attributions for other people’s
behaviors, we are still vulnerable to making attribution mistakes.
41
Suppose you have
communicating and exPlaining our PercePtions 
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worked at a restaurant for many years. You started out bussing tables, then became
a server, and you’re now the weekend manager. You have been a loyal employee to
the restaurant’s owner, Olivia, even accepting reduced hours when business has been
slow. Thus, you are shocked to learn that Olivia is selling the restaurant and moving
out of state. After many years of loyalty, you feel betrayed at her decision and uncer-
tain about the future of your own job. You conclude that Olivia is being greedy and
thinking only of herself. You learn later, however, that she decided to sell her business
and move in order to provide care for her elderly father after his diagnosis of dementia.
We’re all prone to taking mental shortcuts when generating attributions. As a
result, our attributions are often less accurate than they should be. Two of the most
common attribution errors—which we can better avoid if we understand them—are
the self-serving bias and the fundamental attribution error.
Be aware of the self-serving bias. The self-serving bias is our tendency to attri-
bute our successes to stable, internal causes and our failures to unstable, external
causes.
42
For instance, if you gave a successful sales presentation to a potential client,
you may say it was great because you were well prepared, but if it went poorly, you
might say the noise in the room was distracting you. Such attributions are self-serving
because they suggest that our successes are deserved but our failures are not our fault.
Although the self-serving bias deals primarily with attributions we make for our
own behaviors, research shows that we often extend this tendency to important peo-
ple in our lives.
43
In a satisfying relationship, for instance, people tend to attribute
their partner’s positive behaviors to internal causes (“She remembered my birthday
because she’s thoughtful”) and negative behaviors to external causes (“He forgot my
birthday because he’s been very preoccupied at work”). In a distressed relationship,
the reverse is often true: people attribute negative behaviors to internal causes (“She
forgot my birthday because she’s completely self-absorbed”) and positive behaviors
to external causes (“He remembered my birthday only because I reminded him
five times”).
Avoid the fundamental attribution error. How did you react the last time
someone cut you off in traffic? Did you think, “He must be late for something import-
ant” or “What a jerk”?
It is a human tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error, in which we
attribute other people’s behaviors to internal rather than external causes.
44
But bear in
mind that people’s behaviors—including your own—are
often responses to external forces. For instance, when a
new doctor spends only three minutes with you before
moving on to the next patient, you might perceive that
she’s not very caring. That would be an internal attribu-
tion for her communication behavior, which the funda-
mental attribution error makes more likely. To judge the
merits of that attribution, however, ask yourself what
external forces might have motivated the doctor’s behav-
ior. Maybe another doctor’s absence that day left her
with twice as many patients as usual. Good communica-
tors recognize the tendency to form internal attributions
for people’s behaviors, and they force themselves to con-
sider external causes that might also be influential.
We do make accurate attributions for people’s
behaviors (including our own). But the self-serving
bias and the fundamental attribution error are easy
mistakes to commit. The more we know about them,
the more often we can base our communication behav-
iors on accurate perceptions of ourselves and others.
Theselfservingbiasleads
manyofustobelieveour
successesaredeservedbut
ourfailuresarenotourfault
©DeanDrobot/RF
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 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
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HowWePerceiveOurselves
As much as your communication’s effectiveness depends on your ability to perceive
others, it also depends on your ability to perceive yourself. In this section, we will dis-
cover that each of us perceives our self through our self-concept, and we will examine
the characteristics of a self-concept. We will also learn how self-concept influences
communication behavior and relates to self-esteem.
LO
Explainhowthenatureofself
conceptispartiallysubjective
SELFCONCEPTDEFINED
Let’s say you are asked to come up with ten ways to answer the question “Who am I?”
What words will you pick? Which answers are most important? Each of us has a set
of ideas about who we are that isn’t influenced by moment-to-moment events (such as
“I’m happy right now”) but is fairly stable over the course of our lives (such as “I’m a
happy person”). Your self-concept, also called your identity, is composed of your own
stable perceptions about who you are. As we’ll see in this section, self-concepts are
multifaceted and partly subjective.
Self-concept is multifaceted. We define ourselves in many different ways. Some
of these ways rely on our name: “I’m Sunita” or “I’m Darren.” Some rely on physical
or social categories: “I am a vegan” or “I am Australian.” Others make use of our skills
or interests: “I’m artistic” or “I’m good with numbers.” Still others are based on our
relationships to other people: “I am an uncle” or “I do volunteer work with homeless
children.” Finally, some rely on our evaluations of ourselves: “I am honest” or “I am
impatient.” You can probably think of several other ways to describe who you are.
Which of those descriptions is the real you?
The answer is that your self-concept has several different parts, and each of your
descriptions taps into one or more of those parts. What we call the self is a collection
of smaller selves. If you’re female, that’s a part of who you are, but it isn’t everything
you are. Asian, athletic, agnostic, or asthmatic may all
be parts of your self-concept, but none of those terms
defines you completely. All the different ways you would
describe yourself are pieces of your overall self-concept.
One way to think about your self-concept is to dis-
tinguish between aspects of yourself that are known to
others and aspects that are known only to you. In 1955,
U.S. psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham cre-
ated the Johari window, a visual representation of the
self as composed of four separate parts.
45
According to
this model, which is illustrated in Figure 5.3:
Figure 5.3
JohariWindow
TheJohariwindowconsistsofopenblindhiddenand
unknownquadrantseachrepresentingadifferentcombi
nationofwhatisknowntousandwhatisknowntoothers
aboutus
Known to Others
Unknown to Others
Known to Self
Unknown to Self
BLINDOPEN
What others know
about you, but you
don’t recognize in yourself.
What you know,
and choose to reveal
to others, about yourself.
HIDDEN
What you know
about yourself, but
choose not to reveal.
UNKNOWN
The dimensions
of yourself that no
one knows.
●
The open area consists of characteristics known
both to the self and to others. Those proba-
bly include your name, sex, hobbies, academic
major, and other aspects of your self-concept that
you are aware of and freely share with others.
●
The hidden area consists of characteristics that
you know about yourself but choose not to reveal
to others, such as emotional insecurities or trau-
mas from your past that you elect to keep hidden.
●
The blind area refers to aspects of ourselves that
others see in us, but of which we are unaware.
For instance, others might see us as impatient or
moody even if we don’t recognize these traits in
ourselves.
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How we Perceive ourselves 
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 113 01/08/19 12:45 PM
●
Finally, the unknown area comprises aspects of our self-concept that are not
known either to us or to others. For example, no one—including you—knows
what kind of parent you will be until you actually become one.
If you think about people who are important to you professionally or personally,
you can construct a different Johari window that reflects your self-concept with each
of those people. Perhaps you share more about yourself with some people than with
others, making your open pane larger and your hidden pane smaller in those relation-
ships. Some people may know certain details about you that you don’t recognize in
yourself (your blind pane), whereas others do not. The point is that our self-concept
can differ with different people in our lives.
Self-concept is partly subjective. Some of what we know about ourselves is based
on objective facts. Suppose, for instance, that you are 5’8” tall, have brown hair, and
were born in San Francisco but now live in Dallas. Those aspects of your self- concept
are objective—they are based on fact and not on someone’s opinion. That doesn’t mean
you have no choice about them. You might have chosen to move to Dallas to attend
school or take a great job, and although you were born with brown hair, you could
change your hair color if you wanted to. Referring to those personal characteristics as
“objective” simply means that they are factually true. Many aspects of our self-concept
are subjective rather than objective, however. “Subjective” means that they are based
on the impressions we have of ourselves rather than on objective facts.
It is often difficult for people to judge themselves accurately or objectively.
Sometimes our self-assessments are unreasonably positive. For instance, you might
know individuals who have unrealistic ideas about their intelligence, their talents, or
their understanding of the world. In one study, the College Board (the company that
administers the SAT college entrance examination) asked almost a million U.S. high
school seniors to rate their ability to get along with others. Every single student in the
study responded that he or she was “above average”—a result that is mathematically
impossible! Moreover, 60 percent claimed their ability to get along with others was in
the top 10 percent, and a whopping 25 percent rated themselves in the top 1 percent.
46
In contrast, sometimes our judgments of ourselves are unreasonably negative.
That is especially true for people with low self-esteem. Several studies have shown
that such individuals tend to magnify the importance of their failures.
47
They often
underestimate their abilities, and when they get negative feedback, such as a poor
evaluation at work or a disrespectful remark from someone they know, they are likely
to believe it accurately reflects their worth as individuals.
Several studies have also suggested that people with low self-esteem have a
higher-than-average risk of clinical depression, a condition that impairs not only men-
tal and emotional well-being but also physical health and the ways people communi-
cate in their social relationships.
48
We return to self-esteem a little later in this chapter.
AWARENESSOFTHESELFCONCEPT
Part of being a competent, skilled communicator is being aware of your self-concept
and its influences on your communication with others. Three pathways by which
self-concept can shape communicative behavior are self-monitoring, the self- fulfilling
prophecy, and self-esteem.
LO
Describethreepathways
throughwhichselfconcept
canshapecommunicative
behavior
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Self-monitoring is being self-aware. Recall from Chapter 1 that self-monitoring
is an awareness of how you look and sound and how your behavior is affecting those
around you. The tendency toward self-monitoring ranges along a continuum from
high to low. People on the high end of the scale pay attention to how others are react-
ing to their own behaviors, and they have the ability to adjust their communication as
needed. People on the low end express whatever they are thinking or feeling without
paying attention to the impression they’re creating.
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 114 01/08/19 12:45 PM

THECOMPETENT
COMMUNICATOR
Googling Yourself: Managing Your
OnlineImage
EmployerscreditorsandevenprospectiveromanticpartnersusetheInternettolearnaboutyouAccordingtoonestudy
percentofemployersusesocialmediatoscreenprospectivejobcandidatesandpercenthavedecidednottohire
someonebasedontheperson’ssocialmediaprofileWhenpeoplesearchonlineforinformationaboutyouwillyoulike
whattheyfind?Toassessyouronlineimagetypeyournameintogooglecomorasimilarsearchengineandexplorethefirst
dozenwebsitesyoursearchidentifiesthatarerelevanttoyouratherthantosomeoneelsewithyournameReadeachof
thefollowingstatementsandindicatewhetheryouthinkitistrueorfalsewithrespecttoyourselfbyplacingacheckmarkin
theappropriatecolumn
True False
 Iwouldbefineknowingthataprospectiveemployerwaslookingatthesewebsites  
 IfoundpicturesofmyselfthatIwouldn’tbecomfortablelettingmyemployersee  
 MostpeoplewouldhaveapositiveimpressionofmeafterseeingthewebsitesIfound  
 SomeoftheinformationIfoundmightmakemelookirresponsible  
 I’dfeelcomfortablelettingmyparentsreadthewebsitesIcameacross  
 AtleastsomeofwhatIfoundonlineaboutmyselfwasinaccurate  
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It’sbestifyouanswered“true”totheoddnumberedstatementsand“false”totheevennumberedstatementsIfany
ofyouranswersareotherwiseconsidertakingstepstoaltertheonlinecontentIftheinformationorphotosthatconcern
youappearonwebsitesoverwhichyouhavesomecontrolsuchasyourFacebookpageorafriend’spersonalwebpage
removethematerialormakeitviewableonlybycloseacquaintancesThismaybeaparticularlyimportantconsideration
beforeyougoonajobintervieworsetupadate
SOURCECareerBuilderJuneNumberofemployersusingsocialmediatoscreencandidatesatalltimehighfindslatestCareerBuilderstudyRetrieved
fromhttp//presscareerbuildercom/NumberofEmployersUsingSocialMediatoScreenCandidatesatAllTimeHighFindsLatestCareer
BuilderStudy
Suppose you’ve arranged for your supervisor Caleb to interview your friend
Keith for an internship position. As a high self-monitor, Caleb pays attention to his
clothes and grooming to make sure he looks good and presents himself positively.
In contrast, as a low self-monitor, Keith doesn’t spend much time thinking about
those things. During their interview, Caleb
is aware of what he’s saying, so he comes
across as thoughtful and capable. Keith, how-
ever, says whatever is on his mind, without
considering what Caleb might think. Caleb
notices if his behavior seems to make Keith
uncomfortable, and he adjusts his actions
accordingly. In contrast, Keith doesn’t tune
in to what he’s saying or how his behavior
affects Caleb—and unsurprisingly, he is not
offered the internship.
Highselfmonitorspayclose
attentiontohowtheylook
howtheysoundandhow
othersreacttotheirbehavior
©SvenHagolani/GettyImages
From that example, you might get the
impression that it’s best to be a high self-
monitor. Self-monitoring certainly has advan-
tages. High self-monitors tend to be better at
making whatever kind of impression they
How we Perceive ourselves 
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 115 01/08/19 12:45 PM
want to make. They often find it easier than low self-monitors to put other people at
ease in social situations and tend to be good at figuring out what others are thinking
and feeling, a skill that gives them a clear advantage in many social settings.
High self-monitors also pay attention to the way they are portrayed online. What
would people learn about you if they Googled your name? Check out “The Competent
Communicator” box to find out.
Being a low self-monitor also has advantages, however. Low self-monitors spend
less time and energy thinking about their appearance and behavior, so they are prob-
ably more relaxed than high self-monitors in many situations. In addition, because
they are less aware of, or less concerned about, the impressions they make, they are
often more straightforward communicators. They may even be seen as more genuine
and trustworthy than high self-monitors.
Self-fulfilling prophecies make predictions come true. Imagine meeting a
new co-worker whom you’ve heard other people describe as painfully shy. Because
you don’t want to make her uncomfortable, you spend little time talking to her
when you meet her, and you don’t invite her to join you and your friends for lunch.
Consequently, she says little to you all day and eats lunch alone at her desk. You think
to yourself, “I guess everyone was right about her; she really is shy.” Why did your
expectation about a shy co-worker come true? Most likely, the cause is a phenomenon
called a self-fulfilling prophecy—a situation in which a prediction causes people to
act and communicate in ways that make it come about.
How do self-fulfilling prophecies affect the way we communicate? Sometimes
our expectations influence our communication behavior—as when we treat someone
we think is shy as if she were. Similarly, when we expect our relationships to succeed,
we behave in ways that strengthen them, and when we expect to be socially rejected, we
perceive and react to rejection even when it isn’t really there.
49
There is one very important clarification here. For a prophecy to be self- fulfilling,
it’s not enough that you expect something to happen and then it does. Rather, it
has to be the case that your expectation causes it to happen. Let’s say that yester-
day morning you expected it to rain, and later it did rain. That isn’t a self- fulfilling
prophecy, because your expectation didn’t cause the rain: it would have rained
regardless of what you thought. In other words, your expectation was fulfilled, but it
was not self-fulfilled. A self-fulfilling prophecy is one in which the expectation itself
causes the behaviors that make it come true. That is the case when your expectation
about someone leads you to communicate in a manner that produces the expected
outcome.
Self-esteem is our assessment of self-worth. Knowing your self-concept and
being happy with it are two different things. How do you feel about yourself? Your
accomplishments? Your relationships? Do you feel confident about and proud of who
you are? Such questions concern your self-esteem, your subjective evaluation of your
value and worth as a person.
Like self-monitoring, your level of self-esteem ranges along a continuum from
high to low. If you evaluate yourself positively and feel happy about who you are, you
probably have high self-esteem. In contrast, if you are pessimistic about your abilities
and dissatisfied with your self-concept, you probably have low self-esteem.
Maintaining a positive image of ourselves does appear to have its advantages when
it comes to communication behavior. Individuals with higher self-esteem are gener-
ally more outgoing and more willing to communicate and build relationships with
others.
50
They are more comfortable initiating relationships, and they are more likely
to believe that other people’s expressions of support are genuine.
51
However, although several researchers have speculated that having low self- esteem
promotes aggressive and antisocial behavior, the reverse is actually true: aggressive
people have higher self-esteem, not lower.
52
Moreover, when they encounter problems
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 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 116 01/08/19 12:45 PM
in their relationships with others, people with high self-esteem are more likely to end
those relationships and seek out new ones instead of working to fix what’s wrong.
53
In this section, we have considered that we perceive ourselves through our
self-concepts. Next we discover how people use a variety of communication behav-
iors to express their desired self-perceptions to others.
ManagingOurImage
Our self-concept is related to the way we see ourselves. When we communicate with
other people, we are also interested in the way we want them to see us. Our concern
is with the image we want to project—that is, the personal “face” we want others to see.
Is it friendly, outgoing, fun? Or perhaps it is reliable, competent, and serious, depend-
ing on the occasion. In this section, we examine what scholars call image management,
and research that has shed light on that process.
LO
Identifythewaysinwhich
imagemanagementis
collaborativeinvolvesthe
managementofmultiple
identitiesandiscomplex
COMMUNICATIONANDIMAGEMANAGEMENT
Few methods of communicating our image to others are more popular, even among
professionals, than the selfie. Millennials (those born between 1980 and 2000) are
expected to take over 25,000 selfies each over the course of their lives.
54
The selfie
allows you to exert a high degree of control over the way you present your image. You
can give others the impression that you lead a more glamorous, enviable life than
you might in reality. You can digitally alter your image to make yourself appear more
attractive or socially desirable to others. Between a third and a fifth of social media
users admit to altering their selfies before posting them, according to research.
55
The process of behavioral adjustment to project a desired image is known as image
management. In the following discussion, we consider that image management is col-
laborative, that we manage multiple identities, and that managing an image is complex.
Image management is collaborative. To some extent, managing your image is
an individual process. After all, your image is yours. Yet you also get a lot of help
managing your image from the people around you. As psychologist Dan McAdams
has suggested, each of us develops a life story, a way of presenting ourselves to oth-
ers that is based on our self-concept but is also influenced by other people.
56
In this
sense, image management is collaborative.
Inmanysituationswe
carefullyconsiderhowwe
wantotherstoperceiveus
Thatistheprocessofimage
management
©swissmediavision/GettyImages
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managing our image 
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 117 01/08/19 12:45 PM
If others accept the image you portray, they will tend
to behave in ways that encourage that image. Let’s say
you see and project yourself as a confident person. If
other people see you as confident, they will treat you
as though you are—and their behavior will strengthen
that part of your identity in your own mind. If others
don’t accept that image of you, however, they may treat
you as less credible or as untrustworthy.
Perhaps you have encountered people who seem as
though they are trying to be someone they aren’t, or
who are portraying an image that you don’t accept as
genuine. In June 2015, for instance, civil rights activ-
ist Rachel Dolezal resigned as a chapter president of
the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP) amid controversy about her
racial identity. After Dolezal reported to police and
local news media that she had been a victim of several
hate crimes, her parents—who are both Caucasian—
said publicly that she is a white woman pretending
to be African American. Investigations of that claim
revealed that Dolezal had made public statements
claiming to be black and had listed herself as black
on at least one job application, even though she had
sued Howard University (a predominantly African
American school) in 2002 for discriminating against her for being white. These and
other discrepancies ignited a controversy about whether Dolezal had misrepresented
who she was. Although the NAACP stated that racial identity is not a criterion for
holding leadership positions in the organization, the credibility of Dolezal’s self-
identification, when it was challenged by others, may have harmed her ability to lead
effectively.
RachelDolezal
©SplashNews/AlamyStockPhoto
We manage multiple identities. Most people know you only in certain contexts.
Your professional contacts know you as an employee, a supervisor, or a co-worker.
Your family members know you as a mother, a son, an aunt, a brother, a cousin, or a
grandchild. People in your social circle know you as a neighbor or friend.
FOCUS ON ETHICS
Communicating under Multiple Identities
AsthenewmanagerofalocalhotelJeromeisawarethatmanypotentialcustomerscheck
out reviewson Yelp beforedeciding where to stay To make his competitors look bad
thereforehecreatesseveralfakeYelpaccountsandpostshighlynegativereviewsofother
hotelshopingtomakehishotellookbetterbycomparisonWhenafriendquestionsthe
ethicsofhisbehaviorJeromenotesthatheissimplyexpressinghishonestopinionsabout
hiscompetitors’hotelsHisfriendthenquestionswhyhe’shidingbehindmadeupaccounts
toexpresshisopinionsandwondersaloudhowJeromewouldreactifotherhotelowners
didthesametohim
CONSIDER THIS: EveniftheopinionsJeromeisexpressingonYelparehonesthoweth
icalisitforhimtousemultiplefakeidentitiestocommunicatethem?Besidesembarrass
mentifexposedwhatrisksisheincurringbydoingso?
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 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 118 01/08/19 12:45 PM
TECH TIP
Image Management on LinkedIn
N
earlyallprofessionalscreateprofilesandpostcontent
onprofessionalnetworkingwebsitessuchasLinkedIn
touseforjobseekingandnetworkingConsiderthesetips
asyoudevelopyourLinkedInprofile
• UploadaprofessionalhighresolutionphotoThefirst
impressionmostpeopleformisbasedonyourphoto
whichtheynearlyalwaysseefirstDoyouwanttodis
playyourselfinasuitorinbusinesscasualattire?Do
youwanttosmileperhapstoprojectfriendlinessor
optimismornotperhapstoprojectseriousnessorpur
pose?Whatdoyouwantinthebackgroundandwhat
messagedoesthatsend?
• Developanarrativeyouwanttotellwithyourprofile
Doyouwanttoprojectyour
selfasaproblemsolvera
teamplayeracreativethinkeroranexpertathelping
customers?Thebasicprofessionalstoryyouwanttotell
aboutyourselfshoulddictatethecontentyouaddto
yourprofile
• CreateaconcisecompellingsummarystatementMany
professionalsdonot
completethesummarystatementin
theirprofileThisisamajormissedopportunityInthree
totensentencessharewhoyouareasaprofessional
• FocusonqualityratherthanquantityLinkedInallows
youtoadddozensofsectionsandgivesy
ounearly
unlimitedspacetopostcontentAddonlycontentthat
supportsyourprofessionalnarrativeandavoidadding
clutterthatdetractsfromyouroverallstory
• Asksometrustedcolleaguesandfriendsaboutthe
imageyouprojectwithyourprofil
eMakesuretoget
feedbackandadvicefromfivetotenpeopleaboutthe
imagetheythinkyouprojectfromyourprofileThiswill
helpyourefineittobestprojectyourintendedimage
Each of those contexts carries its own distinctive role expectations, so you proba-
bly enact a somewhat different identity in each one. In fact, we all manage multiple
identities. That is, we show different parts of ourselves to different people in our lives.
In the virtual world of the Internet, a person can create and maintain as many dif-
ferent identities as he or she chooses, simply by generating multiple email addresses
or web pages or participating in various virtual communities.
57
For instance, you
might have one email address associated with your college or university that identi-
fies your name and school. You might have another from a free email server, such as
iCloud or Gmail, containing no identifying information about yourself (for example,
mybro4816@gmail.com). Perhaps you use such an anonymous address when you want
to communicate online without revealing your identity. In virtual communities, such
as chat rooms and Second Life, you can manipulate your identity to appear as though
you are of a different sex, a different ethnicity, or even a different species.
58
Some
people may create multiple online identities to protect themselves when interacting
with strangers; others may do so for amusement or to explore various aspects of their
personalities.
Image management is complex. Image management is often complicated and
may generate competing goals for our interactions with others. Let’s say you encoun-
ter some unexpected expenses and decide to ask your supervisor for an advance on
your salary. You want your supervisor to think of you as a responsible employee, so
you have to present your request in a way that projects your image as a mature person
who makes good decisions. At the same time, though, you want to persuade your
supervisor that you really need the advance. Thus, you may find your image needs
in conflict: you want to appear responsible but also in need of assistance. Managing
those competing image needs—while still persuading your employer to advance you
the money you need—can be complex.
Communication researcher Myra Goldschmidt found that when people ask oth-
ers for favors, they often create narratives—ways of telling their stories—that help
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managing our image 
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them to maintain their image while still being persuasive.
59
To your employer, you
might make such statements as “I wouldn’t ask for this advance if I weren’t in a bind”
and “I’ll even work extra hours if you need me to.” Such strategies can help preserve
your image as a responsible individual even in a situation where that image might be
threatened.
COMMUNICATIONANDFACENEEDS
The reason most of us hate being embarrassed is that it threatens the image of our-
selves we are trying to project. Helping someone “save face” means helping that per-
son avoid embarrassment and preserve dignity in a situation where that dignity is
threatened. Sometimes we associate this concept with collectivistic cultures such as
Korea and Japan. In reality, saving face is important in many cultures.
60
Let’s con-
sider what happens when our desired public image is threatened.
Face and face needs constitute our desired public image. Each of us works
to maintain our desired public image through the ways we communicate. If you want
others to see you as intelligent and competent, you will likely communicate in ways
that nurture that impression and try to avoid situations that would make you look
uninformed or incompetent. Sociologist Erving Goffman coined the term face to
describe our desired public image and the term facework to describe the behaviors
we use to project that image to others.
61
Researchers believe our face is made up of three different face needs, or important
components of our desired public image.
62
Helpfully, the first letter of each of their
names—fellowship, autonomy, and competence—are also the first three letters in the
word face.
Fellowship face refers to the need to have others like and accept us. This is the part
of our identity that motivates us to make friends, join clubs and social groups, and
communicate pleasantly with others. Autonomy face refers to our need to avoid being
imposed on by others. It’s our autonomy face that motivates us to be in control of our
time and resources and to dislike having other people make decisions for us. Finally,
competence face is our need to be respected—to have others acknowledge our abilities
and intelligence. That need drives us to seek careers and hobbies in which we can
excel and to avoid situations that will embarrass us.
Some people have a very strong fellowship face need, meaning it is extremely
important that others like them. Other people may have a very high need for auton-
omy, whereas others don’t mind having decisions made for them. Those differences
are part of what makes everyone’s identity unique.
We are confronted with face threats.
We often become consciously aware of our
face needs only when they are threatened.
Let’s say you apply for an internship in a
prestigious public relations firm but are
not chosen. That news could threaten your
fellowship face. It could also threaten your
competence face by making you feel you
aren’t smart enough to work for that com-
pany. The rejection of your application,
therefore, is a face-threatening act because
it hinders the fulfillment of one or more of
your face needs.
Competencefaceisour
needtoberespectedforour
abilitiesandourintelligence
©DeanDrobot/Shutterstock
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Face-threatening acts often lead people
to behave in ways that help them restore
their face. In the case of the internship, you
might say to others, “I didn’t really want to
 CHAPTERFIVE PersPective taking
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 120 01/08/19 12:45 PM
work for that firm anyway.”
63
In truth, you
probably did want to work for that firm, or
you wouldn’t have applied. So, you would
likely make such a statement as a way of
managing your image with others—that is,
you want it to appear that your face needs
have not been threatened. Your statement
is thus a type of defense mechanism—a
response that minimizes the effects of a
face-threatening act.
SHARPEN YOUR SKILLS
Minimizing Face Threats
Withothersinyourclassroleplayaconversationinwhichyou
areasupervisorhavingtocriticizeanemployee’sworkPractice
deliveringyourcritiquestoeachotherinwaysthatminimizeface
threatsfortherecipients
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CHAPTERWRAPUP
By understanding perspective taking, we equip ourselves
to communicate with one another more effectively inside
and outside the workplace. Here’s a quick review of
the chapter.
LO
Illustratehowselectionorganizationand
interpretationoccurduringperception
• Selection is the process by which your mind
and body help you isolate certain stimuli to
pay attention to. Your perceptions are influ-
enced partly by the stimuli you select for
attention.
• Organization is the process of classifying
the information you notice. We can orga-
nize inf
ormation into categories of physical
constructs, role constructs, interaction con-
structs, and psychological constructs.
• Interpretation means assigning meaning to a
stimulus you have selected for attention and
organiz
ed. How we interpret a stimulus, such
as a behavior, affects our perception of the
person enacting that behavior.
LO
Explainthereasonswhypeoplecommit
perceptualerrors
• Cultures and co-cultures influence percep-
tions and can cause perceptual errors.
• Stereotypes influence perceptions and can
cause perceptual errors.
• Primacy and recency effects inf
luence
perceptions and can cause perceptual errors.
• Per
ceptual sets influence perceptions and can
cause perceptual errors.
LO
Differentiateselfservingbiasand
fundamentalattributionerror
• The self-serving bias is our tendency to attri-
bute our successes to stable, internal causes
while attributing our failures to unstable,
external causes.
• The fundamental attribution error is the
tendency to attribute other people’s behaviors
to internal rather than external causes.
LO
Explainhowthenatureofselfconceptis
partiallysubjective
• Our self-concept is composed of our stable
perceptions about who we are. It is also
called our identity.
• The self-concept has many possible facets.
• Some facets of the self-concept are objective,
meaning they are based on fact and not
on someone’s opinion. Many other f
acets,
however, are subjective, meaning they are
based on the impression we have of ourselves
rather than on objective facts.
LO
Describethreepathwaysthroughwhichself
conceptcanshapecommunicativebehavior
• Self-monitoring is an awareness of how you
look and sound and how your behavior is
affecting those around you.
• A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a
prediction causes people to act and com-
municate in ways that make t
hat prediction
come true.
• Self-esteem is your subjective evaluation of
your value and worth as a person.
LO  Identifythewaysinwhichimagemanagement
iscollaborativeinvolvesthemanagementof
multipleidentitiesandiscomplex
• How you manage your image is affected by the
people around you, and whether they accept or
question the image you are portraying of your-
self, making image management collaborative.
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 121 01/08/19 12:45 PM

• Most people manage multiple identities,
meaning they show different parts of them-
selves to different people in their lives.
• Image management can be complex because
we often have multiple competing goals for
our interactions with others.
ALOOKBACK
Let’s go back to the opening scenario to see some
of the ways perception may influence our interac-
tions. Liz complains to Caleb about Aisha, one of the
graphics designers, in a way that shows they may be
misperceiving Aisha because of self-serving bias, the
fundamental attribution error, and stereotypes. Even
though Liz did get the graphics a day before a dead-
line with the client, she attributes her own inability to
finish the website updates by the deadline to external
causes (scheduled meetings). Caleb
reinforces this self-serving explana-
tion by telling Liz she wasn’t at fault. Liz may make the
fundamental attribution error by thinking the cause
of Aisha’s delay is internal (Aisha doesn’t care about
meeting deadlines). Finally, Caleb uses a stereotype
(graphics designers don’t worry about clients’ wants)
to reinforce and justify Liz’s and his perceptions
of Aisha.
KEYTERMS
attribution 110
autonomy face 119
competence face 119
face 11
9
face needs 119
face-threatening
act 119
facework 119
fellowship face 119
fundamental attribution
error 111
identity 112
image management 116
interpretation 104
Johari window 112
life story 116
organization 104
perception 102
perceptual set 108
primacy effect 106
recency effect 107
selection 103
self-concept 112
self-esteem 115
self-fulfilling prophecy 115
self-serving bias 111
stereotype 106
CHAPTERREVIEWQUESTIONS
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1. What is perception, and how is it distinct from
interpersonal perception? LO
2. Define and give examples of selection, organi-
zation, and interpretation as they relate to the
perception-making process. LO
3. What are three characteristics that make a
given stimulus more likely to be selected for
attention? LO
4. Define and give workplace examples of
physical, role, interaction, and psychological
constructs. LO
5. How do personal experience, knowledge, and rela-
tionship closeness affect the interpretations you
make of someone’s behavior? LO
6. In what ways might people from individualistic and
collectivistic cultures differ in their perceptions of
the same behavior? LO
7. What are the three parts of the stereotyping
process? Using the three parts, give an example of
a stereotype that is common in your personal or
professional life. LO
8. Compare and contrast the primacy and recency
effects and explain their relevance to the
perception-making process. LO
9. What is a perceptual set? How does it embody the
idea that “I’ll see it when I believe it”? LO
10. What question does an attribution answer? 
LO
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 122 01/08/19 12:45 PM

11. What do we mean when we say that attributions
vary in locus, stability, and controllability? LO
12. When making attributions, why do you suppose peo-
ple are susceptible to the self-serving bias? LO
13. How does the fundamental attribution error influ-
ence people’s attributions? LO
14. What constitutes a self-concept? LO
15. Define and give examples of the open, hid-
den, blind, and unknown areas of the Johari
window. LO
16. What does it mean to say that the self-concept is
partly subjective? LO
17. In the working world, how might it be an advan-
tage to be a high self-monitor? How might it be a
disadvantage? LO
18. When does a self-fulfilling prophecy occur? 
LO
19. What are some advantages of having high self-
esteem? What are some drawbacks? LO
20. What is image management, and how is it related to
one’s life story? LO
21. In what way(s) do you manage multiple identities in
your own life? LO
22. According to Goffman, what is “face,” and what is
“facework”? LO
23. Define and give examples of fellowship, autonomy,
and competence face. LO
24. What are people usually motivated to do when they
experience a face-threatening act? LO
SKILLBUILDINGEXERCISES
Differentiating Attribution Errors LO
Divide students into groups to share examples of a time
when they have committed the self-serving bias or fun-
damental attribution error in either their professional or
personal life. As a class, discuss an example from each
group and brainstorm ideas for avoiding biases in the
future.
Engaging with Face Needs LO
Divide students into three teams and assign a funda-
mental face need to each group. Have the teams create
dramatic skits that illustrate a workplace interaction in
which participants needed to save fellowship, autonomy,
or competence face.
Understand the Limitations of Stereotypes LO
LO
Watch the TED talk The Danger of a Single Story by
Nigerian novelist Chimamanda Adichie. Then hold a
class discussion by posing these questions:
• How was Adichie influenced by the stories she read as
a child?
• What is the “single story” that Adichie discusses?
• What does Adichie mean by suggesting that the way
to reduce a people to a single story is to start that story
by saying “secondly”?
• In what way are stereotypes an incomplete story? Are
they also untrue?
• How do stereotypes make it difficult to see the truth
about other people?
Aspects of Self-Awareness LOLO
Assign students to watch YouTube clips of business
leaders being interviewed or describing their work. Ask
students to analyze the business leaders’ statements
with respect to which pane(s) of the Johari window those
statements reflect. When do they reveal information
known to the self but unknown to others, for instance?
When do they allude to information known to others but
not to the self?
Online Image Collage LOLO
To underscore the importance of managing their online
image professionally, pair students with a classmate
they do not know well and ask each person in the pair
to Google the other. Each student should prepare a
report or collage of some sort reflecting the information
learned online about his or her classmate. Then, ask
each student to imagine being a prospective employer
and to reflect on whether his or her classmate’s online
profile would help or hinder the classmate’s chances of
being hired.
Personal Ad for a Job LOLO
As an in-class or out-of-class writing assignment, chal-
lenge students to write their own personal ad seeking
a new job. Have students swap their ads with a class-
mate. Classmates should identify the characteristics
and attributes that students used to describe them-
selves and the type of job they are seeking, and com-
ment on how these reflect the students’ self-concepts
and aspirations.
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
flo14498_ch05_100-125.indd 123 01/08/19 12:45 PM
ENDNOTES
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